The Witch Craze in Britain, Europe and North America, c1580–c1750 (Edexcel A-Level History): Revision Notes
The witch craze in Britain, Europe and North America, c1580–c1750
Introduction to the witch craze
Between roughly 1580 and 1750, Europe and North America experienced an intense period of fear and persecution related to witchcraft. While fear of witches had existed since ancient times, including references in the Old Testament, this period saw witch-hunting reach its peak.
Traditionally, witches had been accused of causing harm to property, livestock, and people through their magical powers. However, during the Middle Ages, a new and more sinister fear emerged across the European continent: the diabolical pact. This belief suggested that witches made deals directly with the Devil himself, trading their souls for power or wealth. This concept eventually spread to England's colonies in North America, intensifying the persecution of accused witches.
Diabolical pact: A pact made with the Devil. According to tradition, a witch who enters into the pact usually offers their soul in exchange for wealth or power.
This shift from simple accusations of harmful magic to the belief in demonic pacts marked a significant escalation in the severity of witch persecution.
Key chronology of the witch craze
The witch craze unfolded over approximately 170 years, with several significant events marking its development and eventual decline.
The timeline below shows both the escalation of witch-hunting and the gradual emergence of sceptical voices that would eventually contribute to its decline. Notice how sceptical publications began appearing even during the height of the persecution.
Major witch-hunts and trials:
- 1590 – The North Berwick witch craze begins in Scotland
- 1612 – The Lancashire witch trials take place in England
- 1623 – John George Fuchs von Dornheim becomes Prince-Bishop of Bamberg, triggering a major witch craze in Germany
- 1645 – The East Anglian witch craze begins in England
- 1692 – The Salem witch trials take place in Massachusetts, North America
Legal developments:
- 1604 – The Witchcraft Act is passed in England, strengthening laws against witchcraft
Sceptical publications challenging witch beliefs:
- 1584 – Reginald Scot publishes his sceptical work, The Discoverie of Witchcraft
- 1597 – Thomas Darling accuses Alice Goodridge in the fraudulent 'Boy of Burton' case
- 1599 – Samuel Harsnett publishes A Discovery of the Fraudulent Practises of John Darrel
- 1656 – Thomas Ady's sceptical work, A Candle in the Dark, is published
- 1677 – John Webster's The Displaying of Supposed Witchcraft is published
Pro-witch hunting publications:
- 1597 – James I publishes Daemonologie, supporting belief in witchcraft
Scientific developments:
- 1609 – Johannes Kepler publishes Astronomia Nova
- 1660 – The Royal Society is founded
- 1687 – Isaac Newton publishes Principia Mathematica
Notable late cases:
- 1662 – The Demon Drummer of Tedworth case
- 1712 – The case of Jane Wenham
Why the witch craze declined
The 16th and 17th centuries were turbulent times marked by religious conflicts and significant social and economic changes. These upheavals contributed to widespread accusations of witchcraft. However, two major factors eventually led to changing attitudes towards magic and the decline of witch-hunting.
The Scientific Revolution
Understanding of the natural world underwent dramatic transformation during this period. The Scientific Revolution gathered momentum throughout the 16th and 17th centuries, fundamentally changing how people viewed the universe and humanity's place within it.
The Impact of Scientific Discovery
Key scientific figures made groundbreaking discoveries that challenged traditional beliefs:
- Copernicus, Galileo, Kepler, and Newton made astronomical and mathematical breakthroughs that demonstrated natural laws governed the universe
- These discoveries proved that God did not necessarily control every event on Earth on a day-to-day basis through supernatural intervention
- Natural phenomena could be explained through scientific principles rather than attributed to witchcraft or divine intervention
Philosophical and intellectual advances also contributed to this shift. Thinkers such as Bacon, Hobbes, and Locke enhanced human understanding and knowledge more generally. The founding of the Royal Society in 1660 provided an institutional base for scientific inquiry and rational thinking. These intellectual developments encouraged people to question supernatural explanations for natural events.
The Scientific Revolution fundamentally undermined the intellectual basis for witch-hunting by providing rational, observable explanations for phenomena previously attributed to supernatural causes.
Discovery of fraudulent cases
As the number of reported witchcraft cases increased, so too did the discovery of fraudulent accusations. Several factors contributed to false claims:
- People desperate for money or fame fabricated stories of possession or witchcraft
- Some individuals who were simply bored or seeking attention made false accusations
- Others claimed to have witnessed the work of witches when no such events had occurred
The exposure of these fraudulent cases had several important effects:
- It undermined public confidence in witchcraft accusations generally
- Sceptical publications were produced that questioned the reality of witchcraft itself
- Educated elites began to demand higher standards of evidence before accepting witchcraft claims
- Courts became more cautious about prosecuting witchcraft cases
Notable fraudulent cases included the 'Boy of Burton' case in 1597, where Thomas Darling accused Alice Goodridge. Such cases revealed how easily accusations could be fabricated and how vulnerable innocent people were to false charges.
The extent of witchcraft in Britain, Europe and North America
Overall statistics and geographic spread
The scale of the witch craze varied significantly across different regions, but its impact was devastating.
European-wide persecution:
- Historians estimate that as many as 100,000 people were executed for witchcraft across Europe
- Approximately 200,000 people faced charges of witchcraft
- Executions were considerably more common on the European continent than in Britain
Geographic distribution:
- Witch-hunts occurred in most parts of Europe
- A large proportion took place in German-speaking territories, which saw some of the most intense persecution
- Evidence of witch-hunts exists in diverse locations including Sweden, Iceland, and southern Spain
- Some regions, such as southern Italy, were barely affected by the craze
- Different areas experienced persecution at different times and intensities
Britain's Experience
- No more than 1,000 executions took place in England
- Several hundred more executions occurred in Scotland
- By 1700, the practice of witch-hunting had virtually died out in Britain
- Only a few isolated cases are documented from the late 17th century
- Witchcraft legislation was repealed in Britain in 1736
- In other parts of Europe, witch trials continued well into the late 18th century
North America:
The Salem witch trials in Massachusetts (1692–93) resulted in 20 executions. These executions stand out as unusual because the craze had already diminished considerably in Europe and other North American colonies.
The people of Salem were exposed to the same rational and scientific ideas as Europeans, making the outbreak particularly surprising and demonstrating that local conditions and circumstances could override broader intellectual trends.
Gender and witch accusations
The witch craze disproportionately targeted women across Europe and North America:
- In Scotland, 84 percent of those accused in witchcraft trials were women
- In some countries, this proportion was even higher
- This gender imbalance reflects broader social attitudes about women, power, and supposed moral weakness
- Women who were elderly, poor, or socially marginal were particularly vulnerable to accusations
Methods of execution
Contrary to popular belief, burning was not the most common method of execution for witches, at least in England.
The majority of witches in England were hanged rather than burned. Burning was more common in continental Europe and Scotland. This difference reflected variations in legal traditions and the classification of witchcraft as a crime.
Popular myths versus reality
Many popular beliefs about witches from later fiction did not feature prominently in actual witch trials:
- The idea that witches could fly or transform themselves into other beings was rarely put forward in English trials
- The broomstick, made famous in later fiction and popular culture, is mentioned in only one English witch trial
- The stereotypical image of witches often differs significantly from the reality of Early Modern witch accusations
The Little Ice Age connection
The peak of witch-hunting in the 16th and 17th centuries coincided with environmental challenges that intensified social stress and anxiety.
This period overlapped with the so-called 'Little Ice Age', a period of distinct cooling. The cooler temperatures caused widespread agricultural catastrophe across Europe, leading to poor harvests and food shortages that created social tension and anxiety.
Environmental Stress and Witch Accusations
Many of the witch-hunts took place in the context of poor weather and difficult harvests. Communities looking for explanations for their suffering often turned to accusations of witchcraft. Witches were blamed for:
- Causing bad weather
- Destroying crops
- Bringing misfortune to their neighbours
Context and causes of accusations
The 16th and 17th centuries were marked by significant instability that created conditions favourable to witch-hunting.
Religious conflicts:
- The Protestant Reformation and Catholic Counter-Reformation created deep religious divisions
- Different Christian denominations competed for influence and authority
- Religious tensions contributed to suspicion and accusations
Social and economic changes:
- Traditional community structures were breaking down
- Economic hardship created resentment and conflict
- Social mobility and change generated anxiety
- Communities under stress looked for scapegoats to blame for their troubles
Unique circumstances of each witch-hunt:
- Each major witch-hunt had complex, specific causes
- Local political, religious, and social factors played crucial roles
- Most witch-hunts ended relatively abruptly, often when outside forces intervened
- The involvement of higher authorities or educated sceptics frequently brought witch-hunts to a close
Key Points to Remember:
-
The witch craze peaked between c1580 and c1750, with approximately 100,000 executions across Europe and 200,000 people facing charges.
-
The diabolical pact – the belief that witches made deals with the Devil – intensified fear and persecution beyond traditional concerns about harmful magic.
-
Two key factors led to the decline of witch-hunting: the Scientific Revolution (which provided natural explanations for events) and the discovery of fraudulent cases (which undermined confidence in accusations).
-
Britain saw far fewer executions (no more than 1,000 in England) than continental Europe, with persecution ending by 1700 and witchcraft laws repealed in 1736.
-
Women comprised the vast majority of accused witches (84% in Scotland, often higher elsewhere), and the craze coincided with the Little Ice Age, a period of agricultural catastrophe that increased social tensions.