The North Berwick Witches in Scotland, 1590–91 and the Aftermath to 1597 (Edexcel A-Level History): Revision Notes
King James and Daemonologie
Introduction to King James and his interest in witchcraft
King James VI of Scotland saw himself as an intellectual who sought expert knowledge across various subjects. He took a particularly strong personal interest in the occult and matters relating to witchcraft and magic. This intellectual curiosity, combined with his experiences during the North Berwick witch trials of 1590-91, led James to write his most important work on the subject of witchcraft.
The publication of Daemonologie (1597)
Daemonologie was published in 1597, following the significant witch-hunts of that year. The timing of publication is crucial - James had been directly involved in the North Berwick trials of 1590-91, and there were further major witch trials in 1597. The book was conceived at least partly as a reaction to these events, and there were even plans to publish the confessions from the 1597 trials at the same time as the book itself.
The book was reprinted several times, both during James' lifetime and after his death, demonstrating its significant influence and importance in shaping attitudes toward witchcraft across Britain.
James' motivation for writing
James outlined several key reasons for writing Daemonologie:
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To counter the sceptical views of writers, particularly Reginald Scot, an Englishman who had publicly denied that witchcraft could exist. James was particularly angered that Scot had made these claims "in public print".
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To prove two main points: firstly, that devilish arts have been and are (that witchcraft is real), and secondly, what exact trial and severe punishment those practicing witchcraft deserve.
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To resolve the doubts of many people about whether Satan's assaults are really practiced, and whether those who practice witchcraft deserve severe punishment.
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James stated he was moved by conscience rather than a desire to show off his learning. He wanted to provide guidance on a matter he saw as vital to his kingdom's spiritual safety.
Reginald Scot and the sceptical challenge:
Reginald Scot's book The Discoverie of Witchcraft (1584) argued that witchcraft was impossible and that accusations were based on superstition. James viewed this scepticism as dangerous, believing it undermined the spiritual safety of Christian kingdoms. This intellectual disagreement was a primary catalyst for James writing Daemonologie.
Structure and format of Daemonologie
James chose to present his ideas as a dialogue between two characters, making the complex theological and practical arguments more accessible to readers:
- Philomathes - represents the sceptic who doubts the reality of magic and witchcraft
- Epistemon - the knowledgeable character who enlightens Philomathes on the subject of witchcraft
The dialogue format:
This conversational structure made the treatise "more pleasant and facile" (easy to understand) for readers. By having the sceptical Philomathes ask questions and raise doubts, James could systematically address common objections to belief in witchcraft, making his arguments more persuasive and engaging.
The book is divided into three parts:
- The first book discusses magic in general and necromancy in particular
- The second book covers sorcery and witchcraft
- The third book provides a discourse on all kinds of spirits and spectres that appear and trouble people, with a conclusion to the whole work
Key arguments and points made in Daemonologie
The reality of witchcraft and the Devil's power
The dialogue establishes that:
- Witchcraft is real - both characters agree that the Devil is extremely powerful and represents a genuine danger on Earth
- The Devil has significant power but with limitations - God limited the Devil's power at the beginning of time, so witches and the Devil only have certain powers, not unlimited ones
- Those who deny the existence of witchcraft have been "led astray" and might even be in league with witches themselves
This was a direct attack on sceptics, including some ministers and laymen who had criticised James' support of the 1597 witch trials. By arguing that deniers of witchcraft might themselves be in league with witches, James was making a serious accusation against his intellectual opponents.
Necromancers and witches' allegiance to the Devil
James attempted to prove that both necromancers (people who attempted to communicate with the dead) and witches have a close association and allegiance to the Devil. He argued that these practitioners had made pacts with Satan and were therefore enemies of God and the Christian community.
Practices and activities of witches
James described in detail the practices that witches supposedly engaged in:
- Initiation ceremonies - when joining the service of the Devil
- Making a pact with the Devil - a formal agreement or contract with Satan
- Gathering of covens - these were described as inverted Protestant rituals. At these gatherings, witches would renounce their Christian baptism, effectively rejecting their faith and pledging themselves to the Devil instead
This idea of covens as inverted Christian ceremonies was particularly important in a Protestant Scotland, where religious rituals held great significance. The concept of renouncing baptism was especially horrifying in a society where Christian identity was fundamental to social and spiritual belonging.
Methods of identifying witches
James provided what he saw as practical guidance for identifying witches:
The Devil's mark:
- James held the search for the Devil's mark in very high regard
- This mark was supposedly acquired by a witch when they renounced their baptism
- James' endorsement of this method led to the widespread searching for Devil's marks on suspected witches throughout the 17th century
- The practice involved examining the accused person's body for unusual marks or insensitive spots
The swimming test:
- James suggested that the swimming test would be an effective way of identifying witches
- Although this method was used overwhelmingly in England rather than Scotland, it was used at least once during the 1597 panic in Scotland
- The test involved throwing the suspected witch into water - if they floated, they were supposedly guilty
The logic behind the swimming test was based on the belief that water, as a pure element used in baptism, would reject those who had renounced their Christian faith. This pseudoscientific method resulted in a cruel dilemma: floating meant guilt, while sinking (and potentially drowning) might prove innocence but at the cost of the accused's life.
Demonic possession:
- James believed in demonic possession and claimed it was easy to identify
- He stated that the cure for possession consisted of fasting and prayer
- This reflected Protestant beliefs about spiritual warfare and the power of prayer
Women's vulnerability to witchcraft
The dialogue specifically discusses why women are more vulnerable to the deceptions of the Devil:
- Women are more likely to be witches because they are easily led astray
- This belief was justified by referring to the biblical story of Eve being deceived by the serpent in the Garden of Eden
- This gender-based explanation reflected widespread contemporary beliefs about women's supposed spiritual and moral weakness
The impact of gendered beliefs:
This misogynistic view had serious and deadly consequences, as the majority of those accused and executed for witchcraft were women. James' endorsement of these ideas in Daemonologie provided intellectual and theological justification for the disproportionate targeting of women in witch-hunts.
Supernatural powers of witches
James discussed the various ways witches could supposedly travel and use supernatural powers:
- Transportation - witches could be transported from place to place, even between countries
- The Devil could make witches invisible to others except among themselves, by thickening and obscuring the air around them
- Some witches claimed to transform into the likeness of small beasts or birds to travel
- Others claimed their spirits could be ravished out of their bodies while their physical bodies remained still, as if in an ecstasy
James showed some scepticism about certain claims, particularly the idea that witches' spirits left their bodies, calling this "deluded". However, he accepted that the Devil could enable some forms of supernatural transportation.
James' concluding argument about prosecution
The final argument James presents in Daemonologie is clear and uncompromising:
- Witches exist and should be prosecuted by the authorities
- Anyone who denies this reality has been led astray
- Those who deny the existence of witchcraft might themselves be in league with the witches
The most obvious targets of James' attack were the ministers and laymen who had criticised his support of the 1597 witch trials. By publishing this book, James was defending his actions and asserting his authority on the matter. This was as much a political statement about royal power as it was a theological treatise.
James' role in the persecutions of the 1590s
The North Berwick witch-hunt (1590-91)
There is clear evidence that James played an active role in promoting the North Berwick witch-hunt. He personally interrogated suspects and took a keen interest in the proceedings. This direct involvement demonstrated his belief in the reality of the witchcraft threat and his determination to root it out.
The 1597 witch-hunt: Historical debate
The extent of James' involvement in the 1597 witch-hunt has been the subject of historical debate:
Jenny Wormald's interpretation:
Wormald argues that James' role in 1597 was as a sceptic rather than someone who encouraged persecutions. She claims that in 1592, James passed much of the responsibility for dealing with witchcraft to the church through an order. According to Wormald, the church then established its own system for dealing with witchcraft accusations, which they exercised fully in 1597. She distinguishes between James' active promotion of the North Berwick hunt and his more cautious approach in 1597.
Julian Goodare's counter-argument:
Goodare has argued against Wormald's interpretation. He claims the 1592 order does not actually set out a mechanism for dealing with witchcraft. According to Goodare, the only mechanisms for dealing with witchcraft cases remained commissions issued by the crown to investigate witchcraft and trials at the Edinburgh court of justiciary. This means James retained ultimate control over witchcraft prosecutions.
This historical debate is important for understanding the balance between royal, church, and local authority in Scottish witch-hunting.
James' interest in the Stirlingshire panic (1597)
There is definitive evidence that James still wanted to interrogate witches personally in 1597:
- On 16 September 1597, James ordered the magistrates of Stirling to send an unnamed suspected witch to him
- This witch had recently been subject to having her skin pricked as part of investigations (searching for the Devil's mark)
- The case involved Patrick Heron and his wife, who were accused by the unnamed witch
- The accusations occurred in the context of a property dispute between the Herons and Sir William Menteith and his son
- The Menteith family probably arrested the suspected witch intending to force her to confess and accuse the Herons
- Patrick Heron fled, and faced prosecution for witchcraft from the Menteith family
- The case nearly collapsed but was reignited in response to a letter from the king
This case demonstrates that James was still taking an active interest in witch trials and was willing to intervene personally in investigations. It also reveals how witchcraft accusations could be weaponised in personal disputes, a pattern that would later influence James' growing scepticism.
James' later scepticism towards witchcraft
By the turn of the 17th century (around 1600), James' attitude towards witchcraft had changed significantly:
The shift in James' thinking
- The apparent miscarriages of justice in 1597 greatly affected James
- He became sceptical of witchcraft accusations
- He seemed more concerned with discovering fraudulent witches (false accusations and fake confessions) than those supposedly using real supernatural powers
Evidence of changed attitude
James wrote a letter to his eldest son, Prince Henry, which revealed his new cautious approach:
- He congratulated Henry on uncovering a false witch
- He reminded Henry that what people often think are miracles or mystic occurrences are actually illusions
- He advised that accusations should be treated with caution, especially those made in a court of law
This represents a significant shift from the James who had actively promoted witch-hunts in the early 1590s. His experience of seeing innocent people accused, and possibly recognising how accusations could be weaponised in personal disputes (as in the Stirlingshire case), led him to adopt a more careful and sceptical approach.
Exam tips
When answering questions about King James and Daemonologie, consider:
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Causation: Why did James publish Daemonologie in 1597? Consider both intellectual motivations (response to sceptics like Reginald Scot) and practical/political motivations (justifying the witch trials, asserting royal authority).
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Key features: Be able to identify and explain the main points James made in Daemonologie - the reality of witchcraft, methods of identifying witches, the Devil's limited powers, women's vulnerability, and the need for prosecution.
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Change over time: Track how James' attitudes changed from active promotion of witch-hunts (1590-91) through possible continued involvement (1597) to later scepticism (early 1600s). What caused these changes?
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Historical debate: Understand the different interpretations of historians like Jenny Wormald and Julian Goodare about James' role in the 1597 trials. Be able to evaluate their arguments using specific evidence.
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Significance: Consider how far the persecutions of the 1590s would have been as widespread without James' personal role. Think about the relationship between royal authority, church involvement, and local accusations.
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Connections: Link the elements of witchcraft described in Daemonologie to actual trials you've studied (both English and Scottish). For example, Devil's marks, covens, pacts with the Devil, women as primary accuseds, swimming tests, etc.
Remember!
Key Points to Remember:
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Daemonologie was published in 1597 as a dialogue between Philomathes (the sceptic) and Epistemon (the knowledgeable one), divided into three books covering magic/necromancy, sorcery/witchcraft, and spirits/spectres.
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James wrote the book to counter sceptics like Reginald Scot, to prove that witchcraft was real, and to justify severe punishment for witches. He was motivated partly by the North Berwick trials (1590-91) and the 1597 witch-hunt.
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Key arguments in Daemonologie included: the reality of witchcraft, methods of identifying witches (Devil's mark, swimming test, signs of possession), women's vulnerability to the Devil, witch practices (covens, pacts, renouncing baptism), and the limited but real powers of the Devil.
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Historians debate James' role in the 1597 trials - Wormald sees him as increasingly sceptical, while Goodare argues he retained control through royal commissions. Evidence shows James did intervene in the Stirlingshire panic of 1597.
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By the early 1600s, James had become sceptical about witchcraft accusations, warning his son about false witches and urging caution with accusations, likely influenced by apparent miscarriages of justice in 1597.