The Impact of James VI’s Voyage from Denmark (Edexcel A-Level History): Revision Notes
The Impact of James VI's Voyage from Denmark
Introduction
James VI's voyage to Denmark in 1589-90 marked a crucial turning point in his attitude towards witchcraft. Before this journey, the king showed little interest in witch-hunting, but his experiences in Denmark and the events surrounding his marriage to Anne of Denmark would fundamentally shape his beliefs and lead directly to the North Berwick witch trials.
This voyage represents one of the most significant moments in Scottish witch-hunting history. The transformation in James VI's attitude would have far-reaching consequences, not just for Scotland, but for the development of witch-hunting ideology across Europe, particularly through his later publication of Daemonologie in 1597.
James' voyage to Denmark
The failed voyages and marriage by proxy
In 1589, James VI married the 14-year-old Anne of Denmark by proxy, meaning they were legally married without being physically present together. Anne attempted to sail to Scotland to join her new husband on three separate occasions, beginning on 1 September 1589. Each attempt ended in failure as fierce storms drove her fleet back to Denmark.
The Danish admiral, Peter Munk, described these storms as the most dangerous he had ever witnessed. Significantly, Munk attributed the storms to witchcraft. However, historians suggest he may have had ulterior motives for this claim, as he may have been trying to deflect accusations of negligence in his handling of the fleet.
Proxy marriages were common among European royalty in this period, allowing political alliances to be sealed without the risks and delays of travel. However, they required eventual consummation to be considered fully valid, which explains James' eventual decision to travel to Denmark himself.
James' decision to travel to Denmark
Rather than wait for another attempt, James decided to travel to Denmark himself to fetch his bride. Initially, he ordered his cousin, Francis Stewart, Earl of Bothwell (who was Admiral of Scotland), to undertake the voyage. However, when Bothwell's estimated costs were rejected by the Chancellor as too expensive, both the Treasury and Bothwell suggested that James should make the journey in person.
Key details of the voyage:
- James departed from Edinburgh in late October 1589
- He travelled in a vessel packed with large quantities of food and wine
- The journey to Norway was stormy and difficult
- He met Anne at Oslo on 19 November 1589
- The couple then travelled to Denmark on 22 December 1589
- They remained in Denmark until spring 1590
James' experiences in Denmark
During his extended stay in Denmark, James engaged with some of the most important intellectual figures of his time. These meetings would prove influential in shaping his worldview, including his attitudes towards witchcraft.
Important meetings included:
- Astronomer Tycho Brahe: James visited Brahe's home at Uraniborg, exposing him to cutting-edge scientific thinking
- Theologian Niels Hemmingsen: A leading Danish theologian with whom James discussed Calvinism at length
- Danish courtiers: James met numerous courtiers who held strong beliefs in group witch trials, which differed from the individual cases more common in Scotland
The exposure to ideas about group witch trials was particularly significant. This concept of witches working together in organized conspiracies, rather than acting as isolated individuals, would become central to the North Berwick trials and James' later writings on witchcraft.
The perilous return journey
James and Anne departed Denmark on 21 April 1590 and arrived in Scotland on 1 May 1590, sailing as part of a fleet. The return journey proved extremely dangerous:
- One ship was lost during the voyage
- Some people blamed witches for the difficulties
- A few months after their arrival, members of the Danish court visited Scotland
- These visits further strengthened James' conviction against witches through conversations with leading courtiers
Did James' voyage encourage his belief in witches?
James' limited prior interest in witchcraft
Before 1590, there is no clear evidence that James VI had any significant interest in witchcraft. Several factors demonstrate this:
- Very few books on witchcraft and magic were printed or imported into Scotland before this period
- James may have attended a performance of a play called Flyting around 1580, which contained references to fairies and witches, and he quoted from it in an essay written in 1584 - but this suggests only passing familiarity
The absence of prior interest in witchcraft is crucial for understanding the dramatic shift in James' attitude after 1590. This transformation was not gradual but rather a sudden conversion to believing in the reality and danger of witchcraft conspiracies.
The 1563 Witchcraft Act and its enforcement
The Witchcraft Act of 1563 did forbid anyone from using witchcraft or sorcery, or from consulting with anyone claiming to be a witch. However, the wording of this Act reveals important attitudes:
- Witches were referred to as "abusers of the people" rather than genuine Devil-worshippers
- This reflected the fact that most Scots viewed witchcraft as a fraudulent practice rather than genuine supernatural evil
- The Act was rarely enforced to the letter
Evidence of lenient enforcement:
- In 1573, the General Assembly of the Kirk (the Scottish Church) ordered that witches simply repent for their sins
- There was no interest in executing them at this time
- This demonstrates a much more sceptical and lenient approach than would emerge after 1590
However, James would not have been entirely ignorant of continental European notions of witchcraft. References to a diabolic pact with the Devil appear in a case tried in 1552, which James would likely have known about.
The Kirk's lenient approach in 1573 - ordering repentance rather than execution - demonstrates how dramatically attitudes would shift within less than two decades. By the 1590s, the Kirk would become one of the main drivers of witch-hunting in Scotland.
The influence of Niels Hemmingsen
Historians Christina Larner and P.G. Maxwell-Stuart have argued that James' meeting with Danish theologian Niels Hemmingsen may have been the crucial factor that fired his belief in witchcraft.
Why Hemmingsen was influential:
- He was a well-respected theologian with considerable authority
- He had written a book on magic and related subjects in 1575, entitled Admonitio de Superstitionibus Magicis Vitandis (Avoiding Magic and Superstition)
- In his book, Hemmingsen accepted that witches were able to carry out acts of maleficium (harmful magic)
- However, interestingly, he denied that a pact with the Devil could actually take place
Hemmingsen's theology presents an interesting paradox: he accepted the reality of harmful magic (maleficium) but rejected the possibility of a diabolic pact. This suggests a more nuanced theological position than the extreme demonology that would later develop. James appears to have adopted Hemmingsen's acceptance of witchcraft's reality while rejecting his scepticism about the Devil's direct involvement.
Historical debate about Danish influence
The idea that James' visit to Denmark had a significant impact on his thinking has been challenged by some historians. Thomas Riis has argued against this interpretation:
Riis' argument:
- Witchcraft accusations in Denmark were generally based on localised cases of maleficium (harmful magic against individuals)
- Danish cases were not typically based on pacts with the Devil
- Therefore, the voyage would have had little impact on James' beliefs about diabolical witchcraft
- This suggests other factors may have been more important in shaping James' convictions
This historical debate highlights the complexity of understanding how royal beliefs about witchcraft developed and the difficulty of identifying single causes for major witch-hunts. The question of what truly influenced James remains contested among scholars, reminding us that historical causation is rarely simple or straightforward.
The extent to which Danish witch-hunting influenced events in Scotland
Witchcraft in Denmark: legal protections and traditions
Denmark in the late 16th century had inherited a long history of medieval suspicion and legal action against witches, but witch-hunting in earnest arrived relatively late compared to other parts of Europe. Importantly, suspected witches had a remarkable amount of state protection.
Key legal protections passed in 1547:
- Trials had to be conducted fairly
- Torture was not allowed - a crucial difference from Scottish practice
- Testimony from disreputable individuals was excluded from trials
- This made Danish witch trials more restrained than in many other countries
Further reforms in 1576:
- Guaranteed that appeals against local court decisions could be heard in the high court in Copenhagen
- This provided an additional safeguard against wrongful convictions
- Danish trials rarely made reference to a satanic pact - focusing instead on maleficium
The prohibition on torture in Denmark stands in stark contrast to Scottish practice, where torture became a central feature of the North Berwick trials. The use of torture in Scotland would prove instrumental in extracting elaborate confessions about diabolic conspiracies, confessions that likely would not have emerged under the more restrained Danish legal system.
High-profile witch-hunts despite legal protections
Despite these safeguards against torture and miscarriages of justice, several high-profile witch-hunts occurred in Denmark that undoubtedly influenced events in Scotland.
The role of Protestant clergy:
- Early in the Protestant Reformation, high-profile clergy began labelling their opponents as witches
- Lutheran Bishop Peter Palladius (1503-60) was particularly active in encouraging witch accusations
- Palladius encouraged good Christians to speak up if they suspected someone of witchcraft
- He reported that 52 witches were burned in just one hunt, after each confessed the names of others when found guilty
- This demonstrated the danger of allowing accused witches to name accomplices
The practice of allowing accused witches to name accomplices created a self-perpetuating cycle of accusations. Once one person confessed (often under torture or threat of torture), they could implicate others, who would in turn name more suspects. This mechanism would prove central to the North Berwick trials, where the number of accused grew exponentially through such naming.
Lutheran
A follower of the Protestant reformer Martin Luther. Lutheranism is the oldest Protestant denomination and is based on the doctrine of justification by faith alone and the authority of Scripture.
Connections between Scottish and Danish witch-hunting
Scotland's Protestant Reformation shared many characteristics with that which took place in Denmark, and events in Denmark reinforced Scottish prejudices about witchcraft.
Historical Case: Bessie Dunlop (1576)
Long before the North Berwick trials, Bessie Dunlop was accused of witchcraft in Ayr in 1576. She was charged with conversing with the Devil, who allegedly invited her to become a Catholic.
Bessie confessed under torture that the ghost of a dead soldier had assisted her in healing animals and finding stolen goods. Similar trials in Denmark were based on accusations of hidden Catholicism.
This case demonstrates how witchcraft accusations became entangled with religious and political conflicts even before James' voyage to Denmark.
The connection to North Berwick:
- In early July 1590, a crazed woman arrived in Leith and prophesised that James would carry out noble acts
- Later that month, news reached Scotland that several witches in Denmark had been arrested for conjuring up the storms that had prevented Anne from travelling
- This created a direct link in Scottish minds between the Danish witch-hunt and their own situation
The role of Anna Koldings
The case of Anna Koldings provides the clearest example of how Danish witch-hunting influenced the North Berwick trials.
The Trial of Anna Koldings
The accusations: A letter dated 23 July 1590 from a spy of the English statesman Lord Burghley stated that Danish admiral Peter Munk had demanded that five or six suspected witches be taken to Copenhagen. They were alleged to have used witchcraft to disturb the voyages of Anne and James. Anna Koldings was one of the main suspects.
The interrogation and confession: Koldings was interrogated and possibly tortured, despite torture being illegal in Denmark. In fear of further torture, she gave up the names of five other women who were allegedly involved.
One of these women was the wife of the borgmaster (mayor) of Copenhagen - showing that high-status women could be accused. All of the women eventually confessed to raising a storm to sink Anne's ship. They also confessed to sending demons to climb onto the ship and pull it under the waves.
Koldings claimed the women participated in meetings at the house of a woman named Karen the Weaver.
The executions: Koldings was burned at the stake. At least 12 other women were executed during the course of this witch-hunt. This demonstrated that Danish authorities were willing to use extreme measures despite their legal protections.
Borgmaster
The principal magistrate of a Danish town, similar in stature to a mayor.
The search for alternative explanations
Interestingly, the authorities in Denmark initially looked for other, more rational explanations for the fate of the fleet before they turned to witchcraft. This reveals the political dimensions of witch accusations.
The case of Christopher Valkendorff:
- The minister of finance, Christopher Valkendorff, was initially accused of providing an inadequate and poorly constructed fleet
- Faced with these accusations of incompetence, Valkendorff responded by blaming the witches
- He particularly blamed Karen the Weaver
- This suggests that witchcraft accusations could serve as a convenient scapegoat for officials facing criticism
The Valkendorff case demonstrates how witchcraft accusations could serve political purposes beyond genuine belief in supernatural evil. When faced with accusations of incompetence or failure, officials could deflect blame onto witches, transforming administrative failures into evidence of demonic conspiracy. This pattern would be repeated in Scotland, where political tensions and personal rivalries became entangled with witch accusations.
Significance for the North Berwick trials
The Danish connection proved crucial for the North Berwick witch trials in several ways:
Direct influence:
- The news of the Danish witch-hunt arrived in Scotland in July 1590, just as the North Berwick investigations were beginning
- This provided a ready-made explanation for the storms that had threatened James and Anne
- It encouraged Scottish authorities to see their own situation as part of a wider conspiracy
Intellectual influence:
- James' meetings with Danish intellectuals and courtiers exposed him to ideas about group witch trials and organised witchcraft conspiracies
- This contrasted with the more individualistic approach that had previously dominated Scottish witch-hunting
- The Danish model suggested that witches worked together in organised groups with diabolical purposes
Political validation:
- The Danish witch-hunt provided international validation for taking witchcraft seriously as a threat to the state
- It suggested that even advanced, well-governed nations faced genuine witch conspiracies
- This made it politically acceptable for James to pursue aggressive witch-hunting policies
The timing was critical: news of the Danish witch-hunt arrived in Scotland at precisely the moment when local accusations were beginning to emerge. This confluence of events created a perfect storm (metaphorically speaking) that would lead to the most intense period of witch-hunting in Scottish history.
Remember!
Key Points to Remember:
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James VI showed no significant interest in witchcraft before 1590, with the 1563 Witchcraft Act rarely enforced and the Kirk taking a lenient approach to suspected witches
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James' voyage to Denmark (October 1589 - May 1590) exposed him to continental ideas about witchcraft through meetings with theologians like Niels Hemmingsen and Danish courtiers who believed in group witch trials
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The Danish witch-hunt of Anna Koldings and others in 1590, which blamed witches for the storms affecting Anne's voyage, directly influenced the North Berwick trials by providing a model of organised witch conspiracies
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Historians debate the extent of Danish influence: Larner and Maxwell-Stuart argue it was crucial, while Thomas Riis suggests it was limited because Danish witch-hunting focused on maleficium rather than diabolical pacts
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Despite Denmark having strong legal protections against torture and false accusations, high-profile witch-hunts still occurred, often driven by political pressures and the need for scapegoats, demonstrating that even supposedly rational legal systems could not prevent witch-hunting excesses