The Role of the King and Torture (Edexcel A-Level History): Revision Notes

The Role of the King and Torture

Introduction

King James VI of Scotland (later James I of England) played a central and highly personal role in the North Berwick witch trials of 1590–91. His direct involvement in interrogations, approval of torture, and use of the trials for political purposes made these witch-hunts particularly intense and significant. Understanding James' background, motivations, and methods is essential to comprehending how the North Berwick trials unfolded.

Timeline: James VI and I

Understanding the key dates in James' life helps to contextualise his involvement in the witch trials:

• 1566: Born at Edinburgh Castle to Mary, Queen of Scots, and Henry Stewart, Lord Darnley. His father was murdered in the same year
• 1567: Became King of Scotland at just 13 months old following his mother's forced abdication
• 1583: Formally assumed power at age 17
• 1589: Married Anne of Denmark by proxy
• 1590–93: Heavily involved in the North Berwick witch trials and actions against the Earl of Bothwell
• 1597: Published Daemonologie, his influential treatise on witchcraft
• 1603: Became James I of England following the death of Elizabeth I
• 1611: Commissioned the King James Authorised Version of the Bible
• 1625: Died and was succeeded by his son, Charles I

The role of James in the North Berwick trials

James' personal involvement

James took an exceptionally active role in the North Berwick witch trials, going far beyond what was typical for a monarch. Because the accused witches had allegedly attempted to harm both him and his new queen through raising storms at sea, he viewed the investigation as a personal matter. His involvement included:

• Directly interrogating suspects both before and after torture had been applied
• Approving the use of torture on numerous occasions
• Advising legal authorities on interrogation methods
• Promoting the idea that suspected witches were actively worshipping the Devil
• Using the trials politically to enhance his reputation in England

Two key influences on James' interest in witch-hunting

Political crisis and conspiracy

James' childhood and early adult years were dominated by political violence, conspiracy, and betrayal. These traumatic experiences shaped his worldview and made him particularly suspicious of plots against his person:

• His father's murder (1566): Lord Darnley was murdered when James was only eight months old
• His mother's remarriage: Mary, Queen of Scots, then married James Hepburn, 4th Earl of Bothwell, who was widely believed to be responsible for Darnley's death
• His mother's forced abdication (1567): Following an uprising against her, Mary was forced to abdicate in favour of her infant son and fled to England
• His mother's imprisonment and execution: Elizabeth I viewed Mary with suspicion and had her imprisoned for nearly 20 years. Mary was executed in 1587 for plotting to overthrow Elizabeth
• Legacy of noble violence: There was a long history of violence among the Scottish nobility, extending well before Mary's reign

These experiences meant that dangerous conspiracies were part of James' worldview. He lived with the constant awareness that plots against him could emerge at any time, making him particularly receptive to claims that witches were conspiring to harm or kill him.

Religious environment and division

James grew up in a highly charged religious environment that significantly influenced his views on witchcraft:

• His mother's Catholicism was a source of concern for Protestant Scotland
• His tutors' Calvinism provided a strong Protestant counter-influence during his education
• Religious division among the nobility: James inherited a country deeply divided on religious identity, with nobles split between Catholicism and Protestantism
• Catholic plots: In February 1589, James discovered that George Gordon, an influential Catholic, was plotting to assist Spain in invading Scotland
• Balancing act: Despite discovering Catholic conspiracies, James tried to appease his Catholic Lords as they provided balance against the radically Protestant Kirk (Church of Scotland)

In this context, the idea of a Catholic antichrist at work in Scotland appealed to James. The witch trials allowed him to present himself as defending Scotland against diabolical forces, which fitted with both his Protestant identity and his belief in the divine right of kings (the idea that monarchs are appointed by God and therefore attacks on them are attacks on God's chosen representative).

James' political use of the trials

James recognised that the North Berwick witch trials could serve his political ambitions beyond simply protecting himself from alleged witchcraft:

• Promotion in England: James had long desired the English throne. By presenting himself as a godly Protestant defender against witchcraft, he could enhance his reputation with the English
• The Newes from Scotland pamphlet: Published in England in 1591, this pamphlet presented James as a devout Christian concerned with defending his people from the same diabolical threats faced by the English
• Divine protection narrative: At the end of Newes from Scotland, the author concluded that James was protected from the witches because he was a devout Christian
• Justification for further persecution: The pamphlet provided justification for the deaths of the convicted witches and acted as a guide for further witch-hunts in Scotland, demonstrating that the king approved of eliminating witches

The case of Agnes Sampson

Agnes Sampson's confession particularly caught James' attention because:

• It provided an explanation for the storms that had endangered his and Anne's ships during their voyages to and from Denmark for their marriage
• She directly referenced the king, stating that the Devil had told her that the king and all of Scotland would be destroyed

This personal threat against James intensified his involvement in the trials and his belief in the reality of the diabolical conspiracy.

The case of Barbara Napier

Use of torture

James' approval of torture

By all accounts, James not only approved of the torture used on the accused witches but actively encouraged it. His personal involvement meant that torture was sanctioned and used widely throughout the North Berwick investigations.

Types of torture employed

The North Berwick witch trials are notable because we have detailed surviving accounts of the torture methods used, primarily from the pamphlet Newes from Scotland. The torture methods included:

• The witch's bridle: A metal device placed over the head and into the mouth, often with sharp prongs that pierced the tongue. Agnes Sampson was subjected to this torture
• Thumb screws: Devices that crushed the thumbs
• Boots: Instruments that crushed the legs and feet
• Cords tied around the head: These were progressively tightened to cause extreme pain
• Other tortures on Gilly Duncan: David Seaton, her employer, subjected her to "horrendous torture" before the formal trials even began

Legal framework for torture in Scotland

In Scotland, there was supposed to be a legal limitation on the use of torture:

• Privy Council approval required: Torture could only be used if officially sanctioned by the Privy Council
• James' involvement bypassed restrictions: James' personal involvement and approval ensured that torture was used widely, effectively overriding normal legal procedures
• Widespread unauthorized use: Evidence suggests that torture was frequently used without official permission during this period, though the North Berwick trials are unusual in having such detailed documentation

The involvement of the Earl of Bothwell

Timeline: The Earl of Bothwell

Francis Stewart, 5th Earl of Bothwell, had a turbulent relationship with King James that intersected with the North Berwick trials:

• 1562: Born to John Stewart (illegitimate son of James V) and his mistress Jane Hepburn
• 1582: Recalled to Scotland to enter the king's service
• 1583: Involved in a plot against the royal favourite (the Earl of Arran)
• 1587: Openly criticised James for failing to prevent the execution of Mary, Queen of Scots
• 1589: Involved in a conspiracy against James; found guilty of treason but sentence deferred
• 1591: First arrested for involvement in the North Berwick plot
• 1592: Found guilty of witchcraft in his absence
• 1593: Tried and acquitted of witchcraft
• 1594: Mounted a final attack on James at Leith
• 1595: Found guilty of treason and fled to mainland Europe
• 1612: Died in poverty in Naples, Italy

Bothwell's background and early career

Francis Stewart, 5th Earl of Bothwell (1562–1612), was a member of the highest levels of Scottish society:

• Royal connection: He was James' first cousin, as both were grandsons of King James V
• Education: He studied at the University of St Andrews and travelled extensively on the European continent
• Initial favour: Recalled by James in 1582, he was initially trusted and given important positions
• Military and political roles: He became a military commander, joined the Privy Council, and rose to the office of Lord High Admiral of Scotland

Bothwell's downward trajectory

Despite his initial favour, Bothwell's career declined due to his involvement in various criminal cases and conspiracies:

• 1583 plot: Involved in a conspiracy to remove the Earl of Arran, who was the current royal favourite. Bothwell spent time under house arrest
• 1587 criticism: Openly criticised James for failing to prevent the execution of Mary, Queen of Scots (Bothwell's aunt)
• 1589 treason: Accused and found guilty of treason as part of a group conspiring to seize the king. His sentence was deferred rather than carried out immediately

Bothwell and the North Berwick trials

Bothwell became entangled in the North Berwick witch trials in complex ways:

• 1591: First arrested for alleged involvement in the North Berwick witchcraft plot
• Accusations of playing the Devil: Some historians have suggested that the Earl of Bothwell may have played the role of "the Devil" at alleged witch gatherings, though this remains disputed
• 1592: Found guilty of witchcraft in his absence (while he was in hiding or had escaped)
• 1593: Brought to trial and acquitted of witchcraft charges
• Continued conflict: Despite acquittal on witchcraft charges, Bothwell continued his conflict with James

Final years

After his witchcraft acquittal, Bothwell's relationship with James deteriorated further:

• 1594: Mounted a final attack on James at Leith
• 1595: Found guilty of treason and forced to flee to mainland Europe
• Exile and death: Lived in exile on the European continent and died in poverty in Naples in 1612

Exam focus: Analysis and significance

Why was James so interested in witches?

When answering exam questions about James' involvement, consider these interconnected factors:

1. Personal threat: The alleged plot directly targeted James and his queen
2. Divine right beliefs: As someone who believed in the divine right of kings, James saw attacks on him as attacks on God's chosen representative
3. Traumatic background: His experiences of conspiracy, violence, and betrayal made him suspicious and fearful of plots
4. Religious conflict: The charged religious environment made the idea of diabolical forces at work in Scotland credible to him
5. Political advantage: The trials allowed him to promote himself as a godly Protestant defender, supporting his ambition for the English throne
6. Youth and inexperience: At only 24 years old, James may have reacted more extremely than a more experienced monarch might have

Why was torture used so extensively at North Berwick?

For exam answers about torture, emphasize:

1. James' personal approval: The king's direct involvement meant torture was sanctioned at the highest level
2. Bypassing legal restrictions: James' involvement allowed torture to be used even when normal Privy Council procedures might have limited it
3. Extracting confessions: Torture was seen as necessary to force suspected witches to confess and name accomplices
4. Building the conspiracy narrative: Each tortured confession helped to construct a larger narrative of diabolical conspiracy
5. Creating evidence: In the absence of material evidence, confessions extracted through torture provided the "proof" needed for convictions

Links to essay questions

When writing essays, you might connect this material to questions about:

• The role of authorities in witch-hunting: James provides a clear example of how elite involvement intensified persecution
• The relationship between religion and witch-hunting: James' religious background and beliefs were central to his actions
• The use of torture in witch trials: North Berwick provides detailed evidence about torture methods and their legal framework
• Political uses of witchcraft accusations: James' use of the trials to enhance his reputation demonstrates the political dimension of witch-hunting

Remember!