The Wider Intellectual Context: the Coming of the Age of Science and Reason (Edexcel A-Level History): Revision Notes

Belief in Magic and Witchcraft and the Advancement of Science and Reason

Introduction

The relationship between the Scientific Revolution and the decline in witchcraft beliefs is a crucial aspect of understanding the witch craze's end. Whilst the timing of scientific advancement and declining witchcraft accusations appears connected, historians debate whether this correlation represents genuine causation. This note explores how scientific and rational thinking influenced beliefs about witchcraft, whilst also examining the limitations of this explanation.

The Scientific Revolution and changing beliefs about the universe

The period from the mid-16th century onwards witnessed remarkable breakthroughs in understanding the natural world, which gradually challenged traditional supernatural explanations.

Major astronomical discoveries

Several revolutionary theories transformed how people understood the cosmos, an area previously dominated by supernatural and religious interpretations:

• Copernicus' heliocentric solar system (1543): Challenged the Earth-centred view of the universe, suggesting the sun was at the centre instead. This undermined traditional religious and supernatural explanations of the cosmos.

• Kepler's laws of planetary motion (1609): Provided mathematical explanations for how planets moved, removing the need for supernatural forces to explain celestial movements.

• Newton's theory of gravity (1687): Offered a natural, physical explanation for why objects fell and planets orbited, replacing supernatural explanations with scientific law.

The experimental method and rational investigation

Francis Bacon's experimental method became increasingly influential during this period. Bacon advocated for:

• Careful observation of natural phenomena
• Testing theories through experiments
• Building knowledge from evidence rather than assumption

This approach encouraged people to seek natural explanations for events rather than immediately attributing them to witchcraft or supernatural forces. The Royal Society, founded in 1660, promoted this experimental approach and became a centre for scientific inquiry.

Sceptical writers and rational explanations for witchcraft

Several writers applied rational and scientific thinking to witchcraft cases, producing increasingly sceptical accounts.

Johan Weyer and Reginald Scot

These early sceptics used rational investigation to question witchcraft accusations:

• They examined accused witches carefully and systematically
• They concluded that many supposed witches were actually suffering from mental illness
• Their work suggested natural explanations (psychological problems) rather than supernatural ones (demonic possession)

This represented a significant shift: instead of assuming supernatural powers, these writers sought medical and psychological explanations for unusual behaviour.

Balthasar Bekker

Writing at the end of the 17th century, Bekker's criticism of witchcraft cases was clearly influenced by scientific ideas. His work demonstrated how rational, scientific thinking was being applied to question the very foundation of witchcraft beliefs.

Philosophical materialism and the rejection of the supernatural

Thomas Hobbes and John Locke

Both Hobbes and Locke developed philosophical positions known as materialism, which had profound implications for belief in witchcraft.

Hobbes' contribution:

• Used deductive logic (reasoning from general principles to specific conclusions)
• His logical arguments showed that claims about the supernatural were not deductively valid
• This undermined the intellectual foundations of witchcraft belief

Locke's contribution:

• Published Essay Concerning Human Understanding (1690)
• Argued against innate ideas, suggesting all knowledge comes from experience
• This was seen by some as heretical because it implied human learning rather than divine knowledge
• Interestingly, Locke still believed astrology could be useful (for example, in choosing medicinal herbs), showing that even rational thinkers retained some traditional beliefs

The significance of materialism was that it provided a philosophical framework that excluded the possibility of supernatural intervention, making witchcraft theoretically impossible.

Limitations of the scientific explanation

Whilst the correlation between scientific advancement and declining witchcraft beliefs is striking, several factors complicate this straightforward narrative.

Uneven timing of decline

The decline in witchcraft beliefs was not steady or consistent:

• Belief declined much faster after 1660 than before
• Many great scientific thinkers (Bacon, Copernicus, Kepler) were active much earlier, when witchcraft belief was still widespread
• This suggests scientific ideas took time to influence popular beliefs

Scientists who believed in the supernatural

Many prominent scientists retained strong supernatural beliefs, challenging the idea that science automatically led to scepticism:

• Joseph Glanvill: A member of the Royal Society who nevertheless had strong supernatural beliefs
• Isaac Newton: Despite his groundbreaking work on gravity and physics, Newton believed his discoveries revealed God's plan for the universe
• Kepler: Also believed his astronomical work uncovered divine design

This demonstrates that scientific and supernatural beliefs could coexist in the same person, suggesting the relationship between science and declining witchcraft belief was more complex than simple cause and effect.

The inductive method's paradoxical effect

Ironically, Bacon's inductive method (building knowledge from specific observations) could actually support supernatural explanations:

• If people observed unusual events, the inductive method suggested they should consider all possible explanations
• This meant supernatural explanations could be included alongside natural ones
• The method didn't automatically exclude witchcraft as a possibility

Religious rather than fraudulent explanations

Even sceptical writers didn't always completely reject supernatural frameworks. Thomas Ady, for example:

• Questioned witchcraft accusations
• But believed accused witches were straying from God's path rather than being complete frauds
• This shows scepticism operated within, rather than outside, religious frameworks

Alternative explanations for the decline in witchcraft beliefs

Several social and economic factors contributed to declining witchcraft accusations that had nothing to do with scientific or rational thinking.

Improvements in poverty and poor relief

By the 18th century, poverty remained a problem but had somewhat improved:

• Increased poor relief meant fewer destitute people
• This led to less suspicion between poverty-stricken neighbours
• Consequently, there were fewer vengeful accusations of witchcraft arising from neighbourhood tensions

Economic growth and prosperity

The late 17th century saw significant economic changes:

• Growth of the English empire
• Expansion of international trade
• Generally greater prosperity

These developments reduced the need to find scapegoats for economic misfortune.

The growth of insurance

The development of insurance had a particularly interesting effect:

• Merchants could now safeguard against chance events through insurance policies
• If losses occurred but were covered by insurance, there was no need to blame witches
• This provided a rational, economic alternative to supernatural explanations for misfortune

Insurance represents a rational response to uncertainty and risk, replacing the tendency to attribute bad luck to malevolent supernatural forces.

Key developments timeline

Developments in astronomy and understanding of the universe (1540-1750)

Year	Development	Significance
1543	Copernicus publishes De revolutionibus orbium coelestium	Established heliocentric model of solar system
1588	Tycho Brahe challenges the view that comets exist within the atmosphere	Demonstrated comets were celestial phenomena, not atmospheric
1609	Kepler's Astronomia Nova published	Established laws of planetary motion
1632	Galileo's Dialogue Concerning the Two Chief World Systems published	Defended heliocentric theory
1687	Newton's Philosophiae Naturalis Principia Mathematica published	Explained gravity and motion through natural laws

Developments in human understanding and knowledge (1580-1750)

Year	Development	Significance
1597	Gresham College founded	Promoted scientific education
1605	Francis Bacon's The Advancement of Learning published	Advocated experimental method
1655	Thomas Hobbes publishes De Corpore	Developed materialist philosophy
1660	Royal Society founded	Institutionalised scientific inquiry
1690	John Locke publishes Essay Concerning Human Understanding	Challenged innate ideas, promoted empiricism

Exam focus: analysing causes and evaluating explanations

When answering exam questions about whether science and reason caused the decline in witchcraft beliefs, consider: