The Coexistence of New and Older Ideas (Edexcel A-Level History): Revision Notes

The Coexistence of New and Older Ideas

Introduction

During the period c1580–c1750, major changes were occurring in how people understood the universe. This was the era of the Scientific Revolution, when new ideas about astronomy and the natural world began to challenge long-held beliefs. However, this was not a sudden or complete transformation. Old ideas continued to coexist alongside new theories, often for decades or even centuries. Understanding this coexistence is crucial for grasping the intellectual context of the witch craze period.

The shift from the geocentric (Earth-centred) view of the universe to the heliocentric (Sun-centred) model represents one of the most significant intellectual changes of this era. Yet this transition was slow, contested, and incomplete during much of our period.

The influence of Claudius Ptolemy

Background on Ptolemy

Claudius Ptolemy (AD 90–168) was a scholar born in Roman-occupied Egypt who wrote in Greek. Like the Ancient Greek philosopher Aristotle, Ptolemy believed that the Earth stood motionless at the centre of the universe. His astronomical work became the foundation for understanding the cosmos throughout medieval Europe and well into the 16th century.

Ptolemy's great achievement was producing detailed mathematical tables to track and predict the positions of the Sun, stars and planets. His findings were generally accepted by scholars in medieval Europe as the best available system for understanding celestial movements.

The geocentric model

The geocentric model placed Earth at the centre of all things, with all heavenly bodies moving around it. This view had been established long before Ptolemy:

• Anaximander (6th century BC) proposed that Earth was cylindrical and surrounded by invisible wheels containing fire, with celestial bodies appearing as holes in these wheels revealing the fire within
• Plato argued that Earth was spherical but motionless at the centre, with all celestial bodies moving in uniform circles around it
• Aristotle, Plato's student, developed these ideas further and established the principle that all heavenly bodies moved in perfect circles around Earth

The Ptolemaic system explained

While Aristotle believed all heavenly bodies moved in simple perfect circles around Earth, Ptolemy's mathematical approach was more complex. To make his calculations work, he introduced the concept of epicycles:

• An epicycle is a small circle on which a planet moves
• This small circle itself moves along a larger circle called a deferent
• To account for apparent changes in planetary speed, Ptolemy proposed that epicycles did not move around Earth itself, but around another point called the centre of deferent
• This point was located halfway between Earth and another point called the equant

This system allowed Ptolemy to maintain the idea of perfect circular motion whilst still accounting for the observed movements of planets. However, as astronomers refined this system over the centuries, they had to add more and more circles to make it work, making it increasingly complex and unwieldy.

Problems with the Ptolemaic system

By the late Middle Ages, several problems had become apparent:

• The system had become so complex it was almost unworkable
• It could not explain all astronomical movements accurately
• It posed practical problems, such as the inability to accurately set the date for Easter each year (which had been defined in AD 325 as falling on the Sunday after the first full moon following the spring equinox)
• Based on mathematical models rather than observed evidence, Ptolemy had suggested hypothetical bodies might exist, though there was no evidence for them
• The Ancient Greek insistence that all heavenly motion must be perfectly uniform and circular was restricting further progress

Nicolaus Copernicus and the heliocentric revolution

Background on Copernicus

Nicolaus Copernicus was born in Poland in 1473. After his father's early death, his uncle arranged for him to receive an excellent education at the University of Krakow. Copernicus became a polymath (a person of wide knowledge who specialises in multiple subjects), but his most significant work was in astronomy.

The publication of De revolutionibus (1543)

The 1543 publication of Copernicus' De revolutionibus orbium coelestium (On the Revolutions of the Heavenly Spheres) is generally agreed to mark the beginning of the Scientific Revolution. The book was based on over 30 years of research, though Copernicus was initially hesitant to publish it. It was finally released shortly before his death.

Importantly, Copernicus dedicated the book to Pope Paul III, demonstrating his continued commitment to Christianity. This was a strategic move to try to avoid accusations of blasphemy.

The heliocentric theory

Copernicus' crucial proposal was that the universe is heliocentric – with the Sun at its centre – rather than geocentric as Ptolemy had argued. His model proposed:

• The universe consists of eight spheres
• The Sun is at the centre and does not move
• The known planets revolve around the Sun, each in a separate sphere (Mercury, Venus, Earth, Mars, Jupiter, Saturn)
• The Earth revolves on its own axis
• The Moon revolves in its own sphere around the Earth
• The spheres do not interfere with each other

Like Ptolemy and Aristotle, Copernicus maintained that heavenly bodies moved in perfect circles. However, by placing the Sun at the centre, his system was simpler and more elegant than Ptolemy's increasingly complex model.

Church reaction and censorship

The Catholic Church's response to Copernicus' work reveals the coexistence of old and new ideas:

• To avoid accusations of blasphemy, Copernicus had to present his work as Platonic theory (mathematical hypothesis) rather than Aristotelian fact (observed reality)
• A preface was inserted by Andreas Osiander (a Protestant minister) stating that the book simply provided a mathematical model to aid calculations, and that Copernicus' findings were unlikely to be physically accurate
• In 1616, the book was banned by the Catholic Church and added to the Index Librorum Prohibitorum (List of Prohibited Books)
• Scholars could access only an edited version of the book
• The book was not removed from the Index until 1758 – over 200 years after publication

Reception and influence

Despite the Church's attempts at censorship, Copernicus' work became hugely influential, though not immediately:

• Most people who knew of the book believed Copernicus was simply presenting theory, not describing reality
• The idea of Earth moving seemed counter-intuitive and impossible
• It contradicted biblical accounts stating that Earth stood still
• A recent study found that only ten thinkers accepted Copernicus' theory as physical truth before 1600
• His findings were seen as accepted fact by many in intellectual circles only later, not necessarily in his lifetime

This demonstrates the slow pace of intellectual change and the genuine coexistence of old and new ideas.

The limits of Copernicus' findings

Conservative aspects of Copernican theory

There has been a tendency to view Copernicus as a conservative rather than revolutionary thinker. Several aspects of his work show continuity with older ideas:

Theoretical rather than empirical approach:

• Like Ptolemy, Copernicus made theoretical conclusions based on mathematical calculations
• He did not base his work on direct empirical observations of the heavens
• This meant his work could be dismissed as mere hypothesis rather than observed fact

Continued belief in spheres:

• He maintained that planets and stars moved on spheres (following a round trajectory)
• He was not sure what these spheres were made of, or whether they could even be seen
• This showed he had not completely broken from ancient Greek assumptions

Insistence on circular motion:

• Copernicus refused to abandon Ptolemy's underlying approach
• He continued to believe that all planetary movements must be perfectly circular
• This was an ancient Greek philosophical principle, not based on observation
• In reality, planetary orbits are elliptical (as Johannes Kepler would later demonstrate)

Why Copernicus' ideas had limited immediate impact

Several factors limited the immediate acceptance of Copernican theory:

• The notion of Earth moving contradicted common sense and everyday experience
• It conflicted with biblical passages that stated Earth stood still
• The preface by Osiander undermined the work by presenting it as mere mathematical speculation
• Only a small number of intellectuals had access to the book
• The idea was so revolutionary that it took decades for people to take it seriously as a description of reality

The coexistence of Ptolemaic and Copernican ideas continued throughout the 16th and much of the 17th century.

The impact of Johannes Kepler

Johannes Kepler (1571–1630) represented the next stage in the development of astronomical knowledge. Born in the Holy Roman Empire, Kepler studied mathematics and astronomy and would make crucial advances beyond Copernicus.

Key dates in Kepler's life and work:

• 1571: Born in Weil, Holy Roman Empire
• 1577: Viewed the Great Comet (sparked his interest in astronomy)
• 1587: Enrolled at university to study mathematics and astronomy
• 1594: Moved to Graz, became a mathematics teacher and researcher
• 1596: Published Mysterium Cosmographicum (his first major astronomical work)
• 1600: Met Tycho Brahe, whose observational data would prove crucial to Kepler's later work
• 1609: Published Astronomia Nova (containing his first two laws of planetary motion)
• 1617: Defended his mother Katharina on a charge of witchcraft (showing how superstition and science coexisted even in the life of a leading scientist)
• 1619: Published Harmonices Mundi (containing his third law of planetary motion)
• 1630: Died in Regensburg

Kepler's great achievement was to move beyond both Ptolemy and Copernicus by demonstrating that planetary orbits are elliptical, not circular. This finally broke the ancient Greek assumption that had limited both earlier thinkers. However, Kepler's work still coexisted with older ideas throughout this period.

Why old and new ideas coexisted

Understanding why Ptolemaic and Copernican ideas coexisted for so long is crucial for understanding the intellectual context of the witch craze:

Religious authority:

• The Catholic Church's opposition to heliocentrism was powerful
• Biblical interpretation supported the geocentric view
• Challenging this required confronting religious authority

Practical considerations:

• The Ptolemaic system, despite its complexity, still worked for many practical purposes
• Astronomers and navigators had tables and tools based on it
• Changing to a new system required relearning established practices

Philosophical conservatism:

• Ancient Greek authorities like Aristotle were deeply respected
• Challenging their ideas seemed arrogant and dangerous
• The burden of proof was on new theories, not old ones

Common sense and experience:

• People's everyday experience suggested Earth was stationary
• The idea of Earth spinning and moving through space seemed absurd
• New ideas had to overcome powerful intuitive objections

Limited empirical evidence:

• Neither Ptolemy nor Copernicus based their work primarily on observation
• Both relied heavily on mathematical calculation and theory
• Without clear observational proof, choosing between them was difficult

Social and political factors:

• Intellectual and religious authorities had vested interests in maintaining traditional views
• Accepting new ideas could be professionally or personally dangerous
• The witch craze itself shows how traditional beliefs about the supernatural persisted alongside emerging scientific rationalism

Remember!