The Foundation of Gresham College and the Royal Society (Edexcel A-Level History): Revision Notes
The Foundation of Gresham College and the Royal Society
Introduction
During the late 16th and 17th centuries, England witnessed the establishment of two crucial institutions that would transform scientific thinking and contribute to the intellectual context surrounding witch beliefs. Gresham College (founded 1597) and the Royal Society (founded 1660) represented a shift towards experimental investigation and rational enquiry, challenging traditional beliefs about the natural world.
This period marked a fundamental transition in how educated people approached understanding the natural world - moving from reliance on ancient authorities and religious doctrine towards observation, experimentation, and reason-based investigation.
Key timeline
| Year | Event |
|---|---|
| 1597 | Gresham College founded by Thomas Gresham in London |
| 1645 | The 'invisible college' begins to meet |
| 1660 | The Royal Society is founded |
| 1662 | The Society receives a royal charter from Charles II |
| 1663 | John Aubrey investigates the Neolithic stone circles at Avebury, effectively founding modern archaeology |
| 1665 | The Society founds the world's first professional scientific journal, Philosophical Transactions |
| 1677 | The field of microbiology is born when members observe micro-organisms under a microscope |
| 1687 | Newton's Principia Mathematica is published |
| 1703 | Isaac Newton is elected president of the Royal Society |
Francis Bacon's influence
Before examining these institutions, it is important to understand the philosophical foundation they were built upon. Francis Bacon's experimental method was hugely influential in shaping how the Royal Society approached scientific investigation.
Bacon's Revolutionary Approach
Bacon's emphasis on inductive reasoning (drawing general conclusions from specific observations and experiments) represented a fundamental shift away from relying solely on ancient authorities or religious doctrine. This experimental approach would become the foundation of the Royal Society's work and modern scientific method.
Bacon's key works included:
- Novum Organum (New Instrument, 1620) - This became the most influential guidebook for experimental science. Although it contained no new scientific discoveries, it clearly explained Bacon's experimental method and became essential reading for the founders of the Royal Society
- The New Atlantis (1626) - Bacon described a utopian (idealised, perfect) society where scientific knowledge was valued and used for the benefit of all
The foundation of Gresham College
Background and establishment
The need for a national scientific association was recognised as early as 1645, but the foundation of Gresham College in 1597 was a crucial earlier step. Sir Thomas Gresham, who made his fortune as a financier in London, died in 1579. He had opened the Royal Exchange in 1571, Britain's first commercial building, which provided space for brokers to conduct business.
In his will, Gresham bequeathed his entire estate to the City of London authorities. In return, they were required to support seven professors from the profits of the Royal Exchange. These professors were to be housed at his mansion and deliver public lectures in their respective fields:
- Law
- Rhetoric
- Divinity
- Music
- Physics
- Geometry
- Astronomy
Significance of Gresham College
The establishment of Gresham College was the result of a long effort to create a permanent organisation responsible for research in the mathematical sciences. This was particularly significant because:
Academic context:
Medical professorships had been established at Oxford and Cambridge in the early 16th century, and the Royal College of Physicians created a lectureship in surgery in 1583. However, astronomy and geometry - the two fields essential for understanding the workings of the Earth and universe - were not fully recognised until Gresham created these professorships.
Oxford did not establish professorships in astronomy and geometry until 1619, and those who filled these positions were often chosen from Gresham College staff, demonstrating Gresham's pioneering role in these critical fields.
Early achievements at Gresham College
Before the formation of the 'invisible college' in 1645, several important achievements can be attributed to those connected with Gresham:
Henry Briggs (first professor of geometry):
- Popularised the use of logarithms (in mathematics, the power to which a base number must be multiplied by itself to produce a given number)
William Bedwell (close associate of Briggs):
- Translated important mathematical works into English
- Invented a new type of ruler for carrying out geometric calculations
- Was able to flourish through his connections with Gresham
Edmund Gunter (became professor of astronomy in 1619):
- Worked closely with naval officials to improve navigation
- His work had practical applications for seafaring
These early achievements demonstrate that Gresham College was already fostering practical, applied scientific work well before the formal establishment of the Royal Society. The college created an environment where scholars could collaborate and develop innovations with real-world applications.
The 'invisible college'
As early as 1645, a group of natural philosophers (what we would today call scientists) formed what became known as the 'invisible college'. This was a loosely organised collective who shared an interest in experimental investigation and had connections to Gresham College.
Key features:
- The group would often meet after the astronomy lecture at Gresham College
- Meetings were usually held in the rooms of the Gresham Professor of Astronomy
- Many members of this group would later go on to form the Royal Society
- Early followers of the Royal Society were referred to as 'Greshamites' in contemporary literature
This informal network was crucial in establishing the culture of scientific collaboration and experimental investigation that would characterise the Royal Society.
The formation of the Royal Society
Political context and establishment
It was not until the Restoration of the monarchy in 1660 that the political climate was suitable for the formation of a more formal and recognised organisation. The English Civil War and Interregnum (1642-1660) had disrupted intellectual life, but the return of Charles II created new opportunities.
Timeline of formation:
- November 1660: The Society was formally proposed at a lecture by the architect Christopher Wren
- July 1662: The Society was officially established and received its royal charter from Charles II
- Charles II's interest in science inevitably contributed to the swift granting of the royal charter
Aims and structure
The Society met once a week and its membership was remarkably diverse, including men from all areas of intellectual study:
Notable members:
- John Locke (philosopher)
- Samuel Pepys (diarist and civil servant)
- John Dryden (poet)
- The Earl of Sandwich
- Various botanists, astronomers, mathematicians, chemists and biologists
Organisational structure:
The Society was divided into a number of committees, with each committee responsible for a different area of study. The first few years were marked by genuine variety of research in areas beyond science, including an investigation into improving the English language.
Evolution of focus:
- Most early experiments followed Bacon's method in all areas of intellectual endeavour
- It was only after 1684 that the Society dedicated itself solely to scientific pursuits
The royal charter and aims
According to the Second Charter of the Royal Society (1663), King Charles II stated:
We have long and fully resolved with Ourself to extend not only the boundaries of the Empire, but also the very arts and sciences. Therefore we look with favour upon all forms of learning, but with particular grace we encourage philosophical studies, especially those which by actual experiments attempt either to shape out a new philosophy or to perfect the old.
This demonstrates that the Society enjoyed royal patronage and was seen as advancing knowledge through experimental investigation.
Key aims:
- To gather all knowledge about nature (following Bacon's method)
- To use knowledge only for the public good, rather than to fulfil the interests of a small group of intellectuals
- To encourage both English and foreign scholars to share their discoveries
- To promote experimental investigation in all fields
Major achievements and influence
Relationship with Isaac Newton
Isaac Newton, who was working at Cambridge University, was consulted about his theory of gravity, beginning a long relationship with the Society:
- Newton was president of the Royal Society for 24 years
- His Principia Mathematica was published in 1687, presenting his laws of motion and universal gravitation
- This work became one of the most important scientific publications in history
The first scientific journal
From 1665, discoveries were presented in the first professional scientific journal, Philosophical Transactions. This sharing of information was perhaps the Society's greatest strength.
International Collaboration: The Missing Link in Blood Circulation
In 1661, Marcello Malpighi (an Italian scientist) wrote to the Society after observing capillary action in the lungs of frogs. This turned out to be the missing link in William Harvey's theory of blood circulation.
This demonstrates how the Society facilitated the exchange and development of scientific knowledge across international boundaries, allowing discoveries in one location to complete theories developed elsewhere.
Other significant achievements
1663: John Aubrey investigated the Neolithic stone circles at Avebury, effectively founding modern archaeology
1677: The field of microbiology was born when members of the Society observed micro-organisms under a microscope
Influence on European science
The Royal Society created a model that was followed by groups on the continent:
- 1666: The French Royal Academy of Sciences was established
- 1700: The Prussian Academy of Sciences was founded in Berlin
This demonstrates the Society's international influence in promoting scientific investigation.
Funding and public engagement
Financial support
The Royal Society could not survive without funding, which came from:
- Endowments from wealthy supporters
- Gifts from wealthy men from all over Europe who viewed themselves as amateur scientists
- This patronage system was crucial for the Society's survival and independence
Public demonstrations and accessibility
The aim to carry out work beneficial to the public good was achieved through:
- Regular public demonstrations
- Public anatomy lessons, with dissections taking place on the bodies of executed criminals
- These activities made science accessible to a wider audience beyond the intellectual elite
By making science publicly accessible through demonstrations and lectures, the Royal Society helped to demystify scientific investigation and bring rational inquiry into broader public consciousness. This was a crucial step in changing how ordinary people understood the natural world.
Impact on public consciousness
By the early 18th century:
- Science was part of public consciousness
- Science was no longer viewed with suspicion
- The Society had been greatly supported by Charles II
- There was an increasing belief in Europe that humans could progress without divine assistance
- The Society contributed to the overall aims of the Enlightenment (or Age of Reason), which had begun in the 1650s
Significance for understanding witchcraft
The Royal Society versus Oxford and Cambridge
The pull of Oxford and Cambridge was not as great as that of the Royal Society in the post-Restoration period:
- The universities appeared to be falling behind as they were not always able to attract the best scholars
- Religious nonconformists (those who did not conform to the Church of England) were excluded from both universities
- Many students attended university for the status that a degree gave them rather than any serious desire to learn
- Those genuinely engaged in pushing the boundaries of science did so through the Society
Historical debate about significance
Some historians have viewed the Society as not particularly significant, arguing it was simply a channel for scientists to share discoveries and did not give them direct assistance. However, this view can be challenged:
Arguments for significance:
- Its Baconian aim to gather all knowledge about nature made it extremely well respected
- The commitment to use knowledge for the public good gave it moral authority
- The establishment of the first scientific journal facilitated unprecedented sharing of information
- It created a model followed across Europe
- It contributed to changing public attitudes towards science and reason
The Royal Society and magic
Claims about undermining magical beliefs
A number of historians, including Henry Lyons, have claimed that the Royal Society significantly undermined belief in witchcraft and magic through its focus on critical investigation.
Evidence for this view:
- The first history of the Society, written by Thomas Sprat in 1667, claims that:
- Astrologers only serve to deceive people
- Alchemists are essentially fraudulent
- The manuscript of Webster's The Displaying of Supposed Witchcraft (1677) was dedicated to the Society
- This suggests the Society was seen as aligned with scepticism about supernatural beliefs
Members' continued interest in magical subjects
However, the reality was more complex. Despite the Society's focus on scientific and experimental methods, many of its early members were interested in magical areas of study:
Members interested in astrology or alchemy:
- Robert Boyle
- Isaac Newton
- John Aubrey
- Thomas Henshaw
A number of laboratory-based investigations relating to alchemy can be found in early editions of Philosophical Transactions, although these were rare. This suggests individual members maintained interests in areas that blurred the line between science and magic.
The case of Joseph Glanvill
From 1666, Joseph Glanvill made much of his reputation as a member of the Royal Society when he argued for the existence of witches:
- True to the Baconian method, he endeavoured to establish matters of fact about witches
- He wanted to investigate witchcraft using experimental methods
- Although other members may have shared his interests, the Society itself had no time for Glanvill's suggestion that witchcraft be studied formally
- This shows a distinction between individual members' beliefs and the Society's official stance
The case of Valentine Greatrakes
In 1666, an Irish healer named Valentine Greatrakes visited England and caused a stir when he apparently cured people of disease by laying his hands on them:
Response from Society members:
- Robert Boyle (a member of the Society) took great interest in the case
- Boyle recorded Greatrakes' achievements in a log
- Boyle brought in other members of the Society to investigate
Official Society response:
- The Society as an organisation took no interest
- The minutes of its meetings during 1666 show only discussions of gravity, friction, medicine and the planets
- This again demonstrates a gap between individual curiosity and institutional priorities
Interpreting the Society's relationship with magic
The relationship between the Royal Society and magical beliefs was therefore complex:
Understanding the Complexity:
- Officially, the Society promoted experimental, rational investigation
- Individually, many members maintained interests in areas like astrology, alchemy, and even witchcraft
- Institutionally, the Society focused on what could be observed and tested, avoiding formal investigation of supernatural claims
- This complexity reflects the gradual and uneven nature of intellectual change during this period
The Society did not immediately or completely undermine belief in magic and witchcraft, but it did provide an institutional framework that promoted rational, experimental investigation. Over time, this contributed to a broader shift in how educated people understood the natural world.
Significance for the witch craze
Direct impact
The Royal Society's influence on witch beliefs was indirect rather than direct:
- The Society did not officially investigate witchcraft
- It rejected Joseph Glanvill's proposals to study witchcraft formally
- However, it promoted a methodology (Baconian experimentalism) that emphasised observation and testing
Broader intellectual shift
The Society contributed to a wider intellectual context that would eventually undermine witch beliefs:
- By the early 18th century, science was part of public consciousness
- There was increasing belief that humans could progress without divine assistance
- Rational, experimental investigation was increasingly seen as the proper way to understand the natural world
- These changes were part of the Enlightenment or Age of Reason
The gradual nature of change
The evidence shows that the decline in witch beliefs was gradual:
- Even members of the Royal Society sometimes maintained interest in magic
- Scientific and magical thinking coexisted for many years
- The Society represented an important institutional development, but changing beliefs took time
The foundation of Gresham College and the Royal Society therefore represents an important part of the intellectual context for understanding the decline of the witch craze, even though their impact was gradual and indirect rather than immediate and transformative.
Remember!
Key Points to Remember:
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Gresham College (1597) provided the foundation for organised scientific study in England, establishing professorships in key fields like astronomy and geometry before Oxford and Cambridge
-
The 'invisible college' (from 1645) represented an informal network of natural philosophers who met regularly, creating the collaborative culture that would characterise the Royal Society
-
The Royal Society was founded in 1660 and received its royal charter in 1662, benefiting from Charles II's interest in science and the more stable political climate after the Restoration
-
The Society followed Bacon's experimental method, emphasising inductive reasoning (drawing conclusions from observations) and the gathering of knowledge for the public good
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The Society's greatest achievement was facilitating the sharing of information through weekly meetings and the first professional scientific journal, Philosophical Transactions (1665), creating international networks of scientific exchange
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The relationship between the Society and magical beliefs was complex - while it officially promoted rational investigation and some historians argue it undermined belief in witchcraft, many individual members maintained interests in astrology, alchemy, and even witchcraft investigation
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The Society contributed to broader Enlightenment ideas that humans could progress through reason and observation, gradually changing the intellectual climate in which witch beliefs declined, though this was a slow and uneven process