Introduction (Edexcel A-Level History): Revision Notes
Introduction
Background to the American Civil War
The American Civil War began in 1861 when eleven south-eastern states seceded from the United States to establish the Confederate States of America. The primary reason for this separation was the desire to preserve slavery in the southern states.
Secession refers to the process by which a state chooses to leave the USA. South Carolina was the first to secede in November 1860, following the election of President Abraham Lincoln. Ten other states soon followed, forming the Confederacy.
From the perspective of the northern states and the federal government, the war's purpose was not initially about ending slavery, but rather about preventing secession and preserving the union of states that existed before the conflict.
Lincoln's evolving position on slavery
President Lincoln's initial priority was saving the Union, regardless of the fate of slavery. In August 1862, he wrote to newspaper editor Horace Greeley explaining his position clearly: if he could preserve the Union without freeing any enslaved people, he would do so; if he needed to free all enslaved people to save the Union, he would do that instead; and if he needed to free only some enslaved people, he would take that approach.
This demonstrated that Lincoln's primary goal was maintaining the United States, with slavery being a secondary consideration at this stage. His approach was pragmatic rather than ideological, focused entirely on preserving the Union by whatever means necessary.
The Emancipation Proclamation
Following the northern victory at the Battle of Antietam in September 1862, Lincoln made a crucial announcement. The Emancipation Proclamation declared that all enslaved people in areas controlled by the Confederacy would be freed from 1 January 1863.
This marked a significant shift in the war's purpose. What had begun as a conflict to preserve the pre-war union gradually transformed into a crusade to end slavery. By January 1865, during the Civil War's final months, slavery was completely abolished through the Thirteenth Amendment to the Constitution.
The Reconstruction period (1865-77)
The Reconstruction period lasted from 1865 to 1877. During this time, the former Confederate states experienced dramatic changes:
- They were placed under northern military occupation
- New, pro-Union state governments were established
- Former enslaved people were emancipated (freed from slavery)
- Black Americans were granted civil rights equivalent to white Americans
This era represented a potentially transformative moment for America's formerly enslaved population, who now possessed legal freedom and civil rights. For the first time in American history, black Americans in these states had legal protections and political representation.
White backlash and resistance
However, Reconstruction faced fierce opposition from many white southerners who sought to maintain their pre-war social dominance. This resistance took several forms:
- The formation of white supremacist groups, most notably the Ku Klux Klan (founded in 1865)
- Violent attacks and intimidation against black Americans
- Riots against black Americans in several southern cities (1866)
- Attempts to reassert white dominance in southern society
These groups and individuals actively worked to undermine the civil rights gains that black Americans had achieved during Reconstruction. The violence and intimidation were systematic and widespread, representing organized resistance to federal policies and black advancement.
The end of Reconstruction (1876-77)
Reconstruction came to an abrupt end following the controversial presidential election of 1876. This election highlighted the complex workings of the American electoral system:
The electoral college is the system used to elect US presidents and vice presidents. Each state possesses electoral college votes based on its number of senators and congressmen. Voters cast ballots in November, and in December, officials appointed by state legislatures cast electoral college votes reflecting the popular vote. Crucially, a candidate can win the most popular votes nationwide but still lose the electoral college.
This scenario occurred in 1876-77:
- Samuel Tilden (Democrat) won the majority of popular votes
- Rutherford B. Hayes (Republican) won the electoral college by just one vote
- Hayes secured victory through support from several southern states
- In exchange for their support, Hayes agreed to end Reconstruction
This political compromise meant that the period of federal protection for black Americans' civil rights came to an end, despite lasting only twelve years. The so-called "Compromise of 1877" effectively abandoned black Americans in the South to face discrimination and violence without federal intervention.
Key events timeline (1861-69)
1861
- April: Outbreak of the Civil War as eleven states leave the USA to form the Confederate States of America
1862
- August: Lincoln writes to Horace Greeley about his priorities
- September: Lincoln announces the Emancipation Proclamation
1863
- January: Emancipation Proclamation is implemented
1865
- January: General Sherman's Field Order Number 15
- January: Thirteenth Amendment abolishes slavery
- March: Freedmen's Bureau is created
- April: Civil War ends
- April: President Lincoln is assassinated; Andrew Johnson becomes president
- December: Thirteenth Amendment is ratified
- Foundation of the Ku Klux Klan
1866
- Riots against black Americans in several southern cities
1867
- Beginning of Radical Republican Reconstruction
- Reconstruction Acts are passed over President Johnson's veto
1868
- Fourteenth Amendment is ratified
1869
- Ulysses Grant becomes president
Significance of the period
The years 1865-77 appeared to offer a fresh start for black American civil rights. Former enslaved people had gained their freedom and legal equality with white Americans. However, this new beginning proved short-lived.
The end of Reconstruction in 1877 left black Americans in the former Confederate states vulnerable to discrimination, violence, and the loss of many rights they had briefly enjoyed. This marked the beginning of a long period of segregation and disenfranchisement that would last until the Civil Rights Movement of the 1950s and 1960s.
Remember!
Key Points to Remember:
- The Civil War (1861-65) began over secession and preserving the Union, but evolved into a war to end slavery
- The Emancipation Proclamation (1862/1863) and Thirteenth Amendment (1865) abolished slavery
- Reconstruction (1865-77) brought military occupation, new governments, and civil rights for black Americans in the South
- White supremacist groups like the Ku Klux Klan violently resisted black Americans' newfound rights
- The disputed 1876 election ended Reconstruction when Hayes traded federal protection of black rights for southern political support
- Despite promising beginnings, the period of meaningful civil rights progress for black Americans lasted only twelve years