Radical Reconstruction and Military Rule in the South (Edexcel A-Level History): Revision Notes
Radical Reconstruction and Military Rule in the South
Who were the Radical Republicans?
The Radical Republicans were members of the Republican Party who sought to use the end of the Civil War to fundamentally transform southern society and establish racial equality. Following President Lincoln's assassination by southerner John Wilkes Booth, some Radical Republicans, such as Henry Coffin of Massachusetts, even called for the execution of Confederate leaders for treason.
Origins and goals
- The Republican Party was founded in 1854, united by opposition to the extension of slavery into western territories
- They formed the backbone of the Union (northern) side during the Civil War
- Radical Republicans wanted to permanently transform southern society and bring equality between the races
- Several sought to punish the former Confederacy for causing the Civil War
Key Radical Republican leaders
In the Senate:
- Charles Sumner – advocate for black voting rights
- Benjamin Wade
- Henry Wilson
In the House of Representatives:
- Thaddeus Stevens – played a central role in passing the Thirteenth Amendment in January 1865, which abolished slavery; also advocated for black voting rights
- George Julian
- James Ashley
Most Radical Republicans came from the north-east of the USA, particularly New England, which had been the centre of the abolitionist movement before the Civil War. This geographic concentration reflected the region's long-standing commitment to anti-slavery principles.
The shift to Radical Republican control
Growing rift with President Johnson
President Andrew Johnson's Reconstruction programme fell far short of Radical Republican expectations. His failure to transform southern society and provide adequate support to ex-slaves created increasing tensions between the president and Congress.
Violence in the South
Critical Catalyst for Change:
Two major incidents in 1866 provided impetus for more radical change and demonstrated the failure of Johnson's lenient approach:
- May 1866, Memphis, Tennessee: White crowds attacked black Americans who had fought for the Union army during the Civil War. 46 people were killed.
- July 1866, New Orleans, Louisiana: White people attacked black Americans travelling to a political meeting. 40 people were killed.
These violent attacks shocked the North and strengthened support for more stringent federal intervention in the South.
The 1866 congressional elections
The congressional elections of 1866 proved to be a turning point. Radical Republicans made large gains in both the House of Representatives and the Senate. From this point onwards, Radical Republicans controlled the agenda for Reconstruction and could override President Johnson's vetoes.
The three Acts of March 1867
On 2 March 1867, just two days before the old Congress ended and newly elected members took their seats, Congress passed three crucial laws over President Johnson's veto:
The Military Reconstruction Act
This was the most significant of the three Acts:
Key provisions:
- Invalidated the state administrations that President Johnson had approved
- Divided the former Confederate states (except Tennessee) into five military districts
- Military commanders were empowered to use the army to protect life and property
- Tennessee was exempt because it had already accepted congressional Reconstruction terms
Requirements for state readmission to the Union:
- Each state's written constitution had to guarantee equal voting rights for all adult males
- State legislatures had to ratify the Fourteenth Amendment, which gave all Americans equal protection under the law
- Before the end of 1867, all former Confederate states except Texas had to hold new elections
Supporting legislation:
The Military Reconstruction Act was reinforced by additional measures:
- The Habeas Corpus Act increased the likelihood that southern citizens' cases would be heard in federal courts rather than state courts
- On 27 March 1868, Congress removed the US Supreme Court's power to review cases arising from the Military Reconstruction Act, ensuring Congress had the final say
- In the 1869 Supreme Court case Texas v White, the US Supreme Court confirmed that Congress had the power to decide on the organisation of state governments, endorsing the Radical Republican approach to Reconstruction
The Command of the Army Act
This Act limited President Johnson's power as commander-in-chief:
- All presidential orders to the army had to go through army headquarters
- Army headquarters was under the command of Ulysses S. Grant, a keen supporter of the Republican Party
- This prevented Johnson from using the military to undermine Reconstruction
The Tenure of Office Act
This Act further restricted presidential power:
- Required the consent of the Republican-dominated Senate for the president to remove any office-holder
- Designed to protect Radical Republican appointees from dismissal by Johnson
Implementation and impact of military rule
How military rule operated
The military government directly ruled those former Confederate states that did not yet have recognised state governments. Their responsibilities included:
- Implementing the requirements of the Freedmen's Bureau
- Protecting ex-slaves, scalawags and carpetbaggers from violence and intimidation
- Countering white supremacist groups such as the Ku Klux Klan and the Knights of the White Camellia
Different perspectives on military rule
The impact of military rule was viewed very differently depending on one's position:
From the perspective of former slaves and Reconstruction supporters:
Military governments were seen as protectors. They enforced federal law and safeguarded newly won rights, providing essential security for vulnerable freed people attempting to exercise their new freedoms.
From the perspective of many white southerners:
Military governments were seen as a northern army of occupation. When Democrat-controlled governments were eventually elected across the South, they were called 'redeemer' governments because many white people believed these Democrat governments were liberating them from changes in racial, social and political relations forced upon them by the victorious North.
This reinforced the southern white narrative that the Civil War had been about state rights versus federal government power.
Transformation of the southern electorate
The Reconstruction Acts of 1867 fundamentally changed who could vote in the South:
Disenfranchisement of former Confederates
- 15% of potential white voters were temporarily disenfranchised
- This group consisted of those who had been office-holders under the Confederacy
Enfranchisement of ex-slaves
- 703,000 ex-slaves gained the right to vote
- As a result, black voters outnumbered white voters by almost 100,000
States with black voting majorities
Five states had black voting majorities:
- South Carolina
- Mississippi
- Louisiana
- Florida
- Alabama
Electoral Revolution in Practice:
To understand the scale of electoral transformation, consider these statistics:
- Before Reconstruction: Black Americans had no voting rights in the South
- After the 1867 Acts: 703,000 ex-slaves were enfranchised while 15% of whites lost voting rights
- Result: Black voters outnumbered white voters by approximately 100,000 across the former Confederacy
- Impact: In five states (South Carolina, Mississippi, Louisiana, Florida, and Alabama), black voters held the majority
This represented the most dramatic shift in American electoral politics since the founding of the republic.
New political actors: carpetbaggers and scalawags
The dramatic electoral changes created opportunities for new political actors in the South.
Carpetbaggers
Carpetbaggers were northern white people who moved south after the Civil War to exploit the new political and economic situation.
Key characteristics:
- Many were former Union soldiers who had fought for the North
- The term came from the carpet bags they allegedly carried, containing their belongings
- They encouraged black voters to join the Union League, which urged black people to vote for carpetbagger candidates in elections
- They were accused by white southerners of using newly enfranchised black voters to gain state government contracts and exploit the South's economic dislocation
Scalawags
Scalawags were southern white people who supported the new Republican state governments created during Reconstruction.
Key characteristics:
- Mainly small farmers who had not owned slaves before 1865
- Willing to work with the Reconstruction state governments
- Held many political offices in the former Confederacy under Radical Reconstruction
- Viewed with contempt by other white southerners who saw them as traitors to their region
Understanding the Terms:
Both "carpetbagger" and "scalawag" were derogatory terms created by opponents of Reconstruction. The negative connotations reveal the hostility these groups faced from traditional white southern society. However, many carpetbaggers and scalawags genuinely sought to help rebuild the South and advance civil rights, even if others were motivated primarily by economic opportunity.
Significance and impact
Political transformation
Radical Reconstruction represented a revolutionary change in southern politics and society:
- For the first time, black Americans gained substantial political power in the South
- The federal government imposed its will on former Confederate states through military force
- Traditional southern political elites were temporarily excluded from power
Conflicting interpretations
Historians have debated the nature and legacy of military rule:
- Some view it as a necessary enforcement of civil rights and protection for vulnerable freed people
- Others emphasise the resentment it created among white southerners, which undermined long-term acceptance of racial equality
- The redeemer government concept shows how many white southerners viewed the eventual end of Reconstruction as liberation from northern oppression
Key Points to Remember:
- Radical Republicans gained control of Congress after the 1866 elections, allowing them to override President Johnson's vetoes and impose their vision of Reconstruction
- The three Acts of 2 March 1867 (Military Reconstruction, Command of the Army, Tenure of Office) established military rule in the South and limited presidential power
- The Military Reconstruction Act divided the former Confederacy into five military districts and required states to grant black male suffrage and ratify the Fourteenth Amendment for readmission to the Union
- 703,000 ex-slaves were enfranchised while 15% of whites were disenfranchised, creating black voting majorities in five southern states (South Carolina, Mississippi, Louisiana, Florida, Alabama)
- Carpetbaggers (northerners) and scalawags (southern whites) emerged as new political actors who participated in Republican Reconstruction governments, though they were viewed with hostility by many white southerners
- The period represented a revolutionary but temporary transformation of southern politics, with military force backing federal authority and newly won civil rights