The Restoration of Democrat Control in the South (Edexcel A-Level History): Revision Notes
The Restoration of Democrat Control in the South
Introduction
The period following the Civil War saw attempts by the Republican Party to reconstruct the South and protect the rights of newly freed Black Americans. However, organised white resistance, particularly through violent paramilitary groups, gradually undermined Republican control. By 1877, the Democrat Party had regained power across the former Confederate states, marking the end of Reconstruction.
This period represents a critical turning point in American history, as federal efforts to protect newly freed Black Americans gave way to the restoration of white Democratic control through violence, intimidation, and political manoeuvring.
The White League
Formation and purpose
The White League was a significant white supremacist paramilitary organisation formed in March 1874 in Louisiana. It operated as the military wing of the Democrat Party during the period of federal military occupation in Louisiana. The group aimed to restore white Democratic control through intimidation and violence.
The Coushatta Massacre (August 1874)
One of the White League's most notorious acts was the Coushatta Massacre in August 1874. This violent episode arose from a conflict between the White League and Marshall Twitchell, a northern carpetbagger (northerner who moved to the South during Reconstruction) who had become a Louisiana state senator. The massacre unfolded in several stages:
- White League members forced six Republican Party officials to resign from their positions
- After their resignation, the White League murdered all six officials
- Five Black Americans were also killed during the massacre
- The incident demonstrated the willingness of white supremacist groups to use extreme violence against both white Republicans and Black citizens
The Coushatta Massacre demonstrated a critical pattern: white supremacist groups were willing to use extreme violence not only against Black Americans but also against white Republicans who supported Reconstruction, showing that no supporter of racial equality was safe from terror tactics.
The Battle of Liberty Place (14 September 1874)
A month after Coushatta, the White League achieved what many considered its greatest triumph at the Battle of Liberty Place on 14 September 1874. This event highlighted the limitations of federal power in the South:
The opportunity: President Grant had withdrawn most federal troops from Louisiana due to a yellow fever outbreak, leaving the state vulnerable to White League action.
The confrontation: The White League assembled approximately 5,000 members in New Orleans, Louisiana's largest city. They demanded that Republican governor William Kellogg resign and be replaced by John McEnery, the Democrat candidate who had lost the disputed 1872 gubernatorial election.
The outcome: In the ensuing clash, 5,000 White League members defeated 3,500 members of the New Orleans Metropolitan Police and successfully ousted Governor Kellogg. For three days, the White League controlled the city government of New Orleans.
Federal response: President Grant responded by sending federal troops to restore order and reinstate the Republican governor. However, significantly, no charges were brought against any White League members for their actions. Both white and Black voters in Louisiana were denied voting rights until the Compromise of 1877, with the state remaining under federal military rule.
The Battle of Liberty Place revealed a troubling reality: even when federal authorities intervened to restore Republican control, they failed to prosecute those responsible for the violence, effectively showing that white supremacist groups could act with impunity.
Other activities of white supremacist groups
The Colfax Massacre (1873)
The Colfax Massacre in Louisiana represented the single largest loss of Black American lives during the entire Reconstruction period. This horrific event, attributed to the Knights of the White Camellia, unfolded on Easter Sunday 1873:
- Black residents of Colfax had begun drilling with weapons, fearing attacks from white terror groups
- Armed white men, equipped with a small cannon and rifles, attacked the Black community
- Initially, approximately 50 Black Americans were killed in the assault
- When Black Americans attempted to surrender under a flag of truce, the violence continued
- In total, 280 Black Americans were killed in the massacre
- The sheer scale of the violence demonstrated the determination of white supremacist groups to restore white control through terror
The Scale of the Colfax Massacre
With 280 Black Americans killed, the Colfax Massacre stands as the deadliest single incident of racial violence during Reconstruction. Even more shocking, the violence continued after victims attempted to surrender under a flag of truce, violating basic principles of warfare and humanity.
Federal response: The Enforcement Acts
Faced with widespread violence and murder across the South, the US Congress attempted to protect Black Americans and their white Republican supporters through legislation:
The 1870 Enforcement Act: This law established penalties against anyone who interfered with the rights of any citizen, whether Black or white. It aimed to protect voting rights and civil liberties.
The Second Enforcement Act (1870): This legislation placed the election of congressmen under the supervision of federal election officials, attempting to prevent electoral fraud and intimidation.
The Third Enforcement Act (1871): Also known as the Ku Klux Klan Act, this was the most comprehensive response to white terror. It granted federal troops significant powers:
- Authority to suspend habeas corpus (the legal protection against unlawful imprisonment)
- Power to arrest suspected KKK members
- Outlawed activities associated with the KKK, including forming secret conspiracies, wearing disguises, and intimidating officials
Impact of the Acts: President Ulysses Grant used the 1871 Act in October 1871 to declare martial law in nine counties of western South Carolina, leading to mass prosecutions. These acts were successful in breaking the power of the KKK and other white terror groups, leading to a decline in their activities after 1871.
The Enforcement Acts represent one of the most significant federal efforts to protect civil rights in American history. By suspending habeas corpus and empowering federal authorities to prosecute terror groups, Congress demonstrated that it initially took seriously its commitment to protecting Black Americans and their Republican allies.
The restoration of Democrat control in the South
Impact of white terror on Republican organisation
White supremacist violence had devastating effects on Republican Party organisation in the Deep South. The 1875 Mississippi elections provide a clear example:
- Local Democrat Party rifle clubs paraded through Black neighbourhoods
- These armed groups deliberately provoked riots in which hundreds of Black people were killed
- Historian Kenneth Stampp noted that on election day, many Black Americans remained in hiding, too frightened to vote
- The violence successfully suppressed Black voter turnout and intimidated Republican supporters
The 1875 Mississippi elections demonstrate how white terror effectively disenfranchised Black voters without formally changing the law. By creating an atmosphere of fear through violence and intimidation, Democrats could suppress Black voting without needing to repeal the Fifteenth Amendment.
Growing white resentment
Several factors contributed to the restoration of Democrat control beyond direct violence:
- Military occupation: Many white southerners deeply resented the presence of federal troops in their states
- Black political participation: The involvement of Black Americans in elections and local politics alienated white voters who opposed racial equality
- Economic concerns: The disruption of traditional social and economic hierarchies angered many white southerners
State-by-state Democrat victories
By 1875, the political landscape of the South had dramatically changed. Only three states retained Republican-controlled state governments:
- Louisiana
- Florida
- South Carolina
All other former Confederate states had returned to Democrat Party control. Democrats opposed Reconstruction and worked to restore white supremacy.
Duration of Republican rule
The following data shows how quickly Democrat control was restored in most states:
| Former Confederate State | Readmission to Union | Democrat takeover | Duration of Republican rule |
|---|---|---|---|
| Alabama | 25 June 1868 | 14 November 1874 | 6.5 years |
| Arkansas | 22 June 1868 | 10 November 1874 | 6.5 years |
| Florida | 25 June 1868 | 2 January 1877 | 8.5 years |
| Georgia | 15 June 1870 | 1 November 1871 | 1.0 year |
| Louisiana | 25 June 1868 | 2 January 1877 | 8.5 years |
| Mississippi | 23 February 1870 | 3 November 1875 | 5.5 years |
| North Carolina | 25 June 1868 | 3 November 1870 | 2.0 years |
| South Carolina | 25 June 1868 | 12 November 1876 | 8.0 years |
| Tennessee | 24 July 1866 | 4 October 1869 | 3.0 years |
| Texas | 25 June 1868 | 14 January 1873 | 3.0 years |
| Virginia | 26 January 1870 | 5 October 1869 | 0.0 years |
Key observations from the table:
- Virginia never experienced Republican rule under Reconstruction
- Georgia and North Carolina returned to Democrat control within 1-2 years
- Louisiana, Florida, and South Carolina maintained Republican governments longest (over 8 years)
- Most states returned to Democrat control between 1870-1875
White southerners referred to these Democrat victories as "redemption", viewing the restoration of white Democratic control as saving their states from Republican rule and Black political participation.
The end of Reconstruction, 1877
Official end and earlier developments
Reconstruction officially ended in March 1877 with the inauguration of Rutherford B. Hayes as president. However, the restoration of southern white rule had begun much earlier, driven by several interconnected factors.
President Grant's changing approach
The election of Ulysses Grant as president in 1868 marked a turning point in federal commitment to Reconstruction:
Reduced funding: As early as 1869, Congress refused to provide additional funding for the Freedmen's Bureau, the agency that had assisted formerly enslaved people.
The Amnesty Act of 1872: Grant supported this act, which pardoned all but the most senior officers and officials of the former Confederate states. This allowed most former Confederates to return to political life.
Refusal of federal assistance: When the Republican governor of Mississippi appealed to President Grant for federal troops to suppress white terror groups disrupting the 1875 state elections, Grant refused. He replied that the public was tired of annual autumnal (autumn) outbreaks in the South. Grant's refusal meant no federal troops were provided to protect Black voters or maintain Republican control.
Admission of fraud: After Democrats won the 1875 Mississippi election, Grant acknowledged that they had achieved victory through fraud and violence. However, he took no action to overturn the results.
Grant's refusal to send federal troops to Mississippi in 1875 marked a critical moment in Reconstruction's decline. Despite acknowledging that Democrats had won through fraud and violence, Grant prioritised northern public opinion over protecting Black voting rights, effectively signalling that the federal government would no longer enforce Reconstruction policies.
This less radical approach contrasted sharply with the policies of the Radical Republicans in Congress who had driven early Reconstruction efforts.
Economic pressures: The Depression of 1873
In 1873, a major economic depression struck the US economy. This had significant political consequences:
- Northern businessmen pressured the federal government to normalise relations with former Confederate states
- They argued that improved relations would stimulate economic activity and help end the depression
- Economic concerns began to outweigh commitment to protecting Black rights in the South
- Northern interest in Reconstruction declined as economic problems demanded attention
The 1873 economic depression shifted northern priorities away from civil rights enforcement. As economic conditions worsened, northern businessmen and voters became more concerned with economic recovery than with protecting Black Americans in the South, demonstrating how economic crises can undermine commitment to social justice.
Declining violence and Democrat success
The reduction in violence by the Ku Klux Klan and other white terror groups after 1871 resulted from two factors:
- The Enforcement Acts: Federal legislation and prosecutions had successfully broken the organisational power of terror groups
- Democrat victories: Violence declined partly because it had achieved its purpose—by 1875, the Democrat Party controlled most southern states, making large-scale terror less necessary
The disputed 1876 presidential election
The 1876 presidential and congressional elections proved crucial in ending Reconstruction:
The candidates:
- Democrats nominated Samuel Tilden, governor of New York state
- Republicans faced controversy over their nomination because President Grant's administrations (1869-1876) had been plagued by major corruption scandals
- Republicans chose Rutherford B. Hayes, the reforming governor of Ohio
- In a private letter in 1875, Hayes had suggested that leaving the South alone seemed the most appropriate course of action
- Hayes deliberately sought southern support during his campaign
The election results:
- Popular vote: Samuel Tilden won more total votes than Hayes, carrying states including New York, New Jersey, Connecticut, and Indiana
- Electoral college: Tilden received 184 electoral college votes, just one vote short of the 185 needed for victory
- Hayes won the disputed electoral college votes in three southern states: Louisiana, Florida, and South Carolina
The significance: Presidential elections are determined not by popular vote but by electoral college votes. The disputed nature of the results in the three southern states created a constitutional crisis.
The 1876 Constitutional Crisis
Samuel Tilden won the popular vote and needed only one more electoral college vote to become president. The disputed votes from Louisiana, Florida, and South Carolina—the last three states with Republican governments—would determine the presidency. This created a situation where the resolution of the election would decide not only who became president but also the fate of Reconstruction itself.
The Compromise of 1877
To resolve the disputed election, political leaders negotiated what became known as the Compromise of 1877. Although the specific details of negotiations remain somewhat unclear, the outcome was decisive:
- Hayes became president
- Federal troops were withdrawn from the South
- The last three Republican state governments in Louisiana, Florida, and South Carolina fell to Democrat control
- Reconstruction officially ended
- White Democratic control was restored throughout the former Confederacy
The Compromise of 1877 effectively traded Black Americans' civil rights protection for political expediency. In exchange for Hayes becoming president, Republicans agreed to abandon federal enforcement of Reconstruction, leaving Black southerners vulnerable to discrimination, violence, and disenfranchisement for nearly a century.
Exam guidance
Key analytical point: When evaluating the extent to which Black Americans' lives improved during Reconstruction (1865-77), you must provide a balanced analysis:
Positive changes:
- The Thirteenth Amendment abolished slavery
- The Fourteenth Amendment granted citizenship
- The Fifteenth Amendment protected voting rights
- Some Black Americans acquired land
- Black men participated in politics and held office
Negative changes:
- Rising intimidation and violence from white supremacist groups (KKK, White League, Knights of the White Camellia)
- Economic dependency continued through sharecropping
- Federal government commitment declined over time
- By 1877, Democrat control meant loss of political rights and protection
Remember: A strong answer will explain both improvements and limitations, showing how gains made during early Reconstruction were undermined by violence, economic pressures, and declining federal commitment.
Remember!
Key Points to Remember:
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The White League (formed March 1874) and other white supremacist groups used systematic violence to undermine Republican control in the South, most notably in the Coushatta Massacre (August 1874) and the Battle of Liberty Place (September 1874)
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The Enforcement Acts (1870, 1870, 1871) gave federal authorities power to combat the KKK and white terror groups, including suspending habeas corpus and prosecuting violence, which successfully reduced terror activity after 1871
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By 1875, only Louisiana, Florida, and South Carolina retained Republican governments; all other former Confederate states had returned to Democrat control through violence, intimidation, and electoral fraud
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The 1876 disputed presidential election led to the Compromise of 1877, which ended Reconstruction by withdrawing federal troops from the South in exchange for Rutherford B. Hayes becoming president
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The restoration of Democrat control, which white southerners called "redemption", resulted from multiple factors: white terror violence suppressing Black voters, declining northern commitment due to the 1873 economic depression, and President Grant's less radical approach to Reconstruction after 1868