I Have a Dream', 1954-68 (Edexcel A-Level History): Revision Notes
Martin Luther King: the Last Years, 1966-68
Introduction
Between 1966 and 1968, Martin Luther King faced significant challenges as the civil rights movement became increasingly divided. During this period, King expanded his focus beyond the South, took a controversial stance on the Vietnam War, and launched the Poor People's Campaign before his assassination in April 1968. These final years marked a shift in King's approach and revealed both his continued influence and the limitations of his methods.
This period represents a crucial transition in King's activism, as he moved from fighting legal segregation in the South to confronting broader issues of economic inequality and war. Understanding these final years is essential to appreciating both King's achievements and the challenges he faced.
The failure in Chicago, 1966
King's strategic shift to the North
Until 1966, Martin Luther King had concentrated his efforts on ending racial discrimination in the southern states. However, in 1966, he made a crucial decision to take his campaign north to Chicago, where black Americans faced serious discrimination in housing and employment. This marked a significant expansion of the civil rights struggle beyond the South.
Problems with organisation and opposition
The Chicago campaign faced several major obstacles:
- The SCLC (Southern Christian Leadership Conference) was poorly organised in Chicago and lacked the local networks it had built in the South
- King encountered powerful opposition from Mayor Richard Daley, one of the most influential city bosses in the USA and a key member of the Democrat Party
- When King attempted to highlight poor housing conditions for black Americans, Daley countered by sending building inspectors who issued housing violations to landlords, appearing to address the problem without making fundamental changes
Mayor Daley's response demonstrates how northern political machines were skilled at creating the appearance of reform whilst maintaining the status quo. This tactical approach proved far more difficult to counter than the open defiance King had encountered in the South.
The Gage Park confrontation
The most serious confrontation during the Chicago campaign occurred at the white suburb of Gage Park:
- An SCLC protest march aimed to highlight de facto racial segregation (segregation that existed in practice, even without laws enforcing it)
- Hostile white residents hurled missiles at the black protestors, revealing the depth of racial hostility in northern cities
- Mayor Daley accused the SCLC of encouraging rioting, shifting blame away from the white attackers
- King failed to persuade the Chicago city council, Mayor Daley, or most Chicagoans to address housing segregation
- In 1967, Daley was re-elected as mayor in a landslide victory, demonstrating that the campaign had not won public support
Why the Chicago campaign failed
Understanding the Chicago Failure
The Chicago campaign represented a significant failure for King because:
- Northern racism operated differently from southern racism, relying on economic and social barriers rather than explicit legal segregation
- Urban political machines like Daley's were skilled at appearing responsive whilst maintaining the status quo
- King's methods of non-violent protest, which had successfully challenged legal segregation, proved less effective against de facto segregation
This failure exposed the limitations of tactics that had worked so well in the South and foreshadowed the challenges King would continue to face in his final years.
King's stance on the Vietnam War
The context of the Vietnam War
King's Chicago failure coincided with growing protests against US involvement in the Vietnam War:
- The USA had sent ground troops to Vietnam in March 1965
- By early 1967, there seemed no prospect of victory despite the USA increasing its commitment to almost half a million troops
- The US air force was conducting extensive bombing of North Vietnam
- Protests against the war began on university campuses but spread nationwide
Opposition to the war within the civil rights movement
Several prominent figures in the civil rights movement opposed sending black Americans to fight in Vietnam:
- The SNCC (Student Nonviolent Coordinating Committee) and CORE (Congress of Racial Equality) protested against the war
- World heavyweight boxing champion Muhammed Ali refused to be drafted into the US army, famously stating that no Vietnamese communist had ever called him 'nigger'
- Ali was subsequently stripped of his boxing title for his refusal
King's initial hesitation
King first spoke out against the war in 1965, but he was aware that the SCLC opposed any identification with the anti-war movement. Many in the organisation feared that opposing the war would damage their relationship with the federal government and distract from civil rights work.
The Riverside Church speech, 4 April 1967
The turning point came on 4 April 1967, when King delivered a speech at the Riverside Church, New York City. In this controversial speech, King:
- Expressed sympathy for the Vietnamese communists who were fighting US and South Vietnamese forces
- Voiced support for other left-wing revolutionary movements around the world (in South America, Africa and Asia)
- Made a shocking comparison between US military tactics in Vietnam and Nazi actions in the Second World War
- Argued that US forces were destroying two important institutions in Vietnamese society: the family and the village
- Claimed that US forces had destroyed land and crops and had killed women and children
The Radical Nature of the Riverside Church Speech
King's Riverside Church speech marked a dramatic escalation in his political activism. By comparing American military actions to Nazi atrocities and expressing sympathy for communist forces, King moved far beyond the mainstream civil rights discourse.
This speech demonstrated King's willingness to risk his political capital and relationships to speak what he believed was the truth about American foreign policy. It represented his evolution from a civil rights leader focused on domestic issues to a broader critic of American society and its international role.
This speech marked King's most radical political statement and aligned him with the international left-wing anti-war movement.
The Spring Mobilisation march, April 1967
Later in April 1967, King demonstrated his commitment to the anti-war cause:
- He became the main speaker at the Spring Mobilisation to End the War in Vietnam, organised by James Bevel of the SCLC
- 125,000 protestors marched from Central Park to United Nations Plaza in New York City
- The march also involved Floyd McKissick of CORE and Stokely Carmichael of the SNCC
- This was a deliberate attempt by King to align himself with the younger, more radical element of the black civil rights movement
The costs of King's anti-war stance
King's opposition to the Vietnam War came at a significant political cost:
The Price of Principle: King's Political Isolation
Loss of support from civil rights leaders:
- Whitney Young of the Urban League and Roy Wilkins of the NAACP (National Association for the Advancement of Colored People) condemned his position
- This division weakened the unity of the mainstream civil rights movement
Loss of influence with President Johnson:
- King had worked closely with the Johnson administration on civil rights, particularly on the Voting Rights Act of 1965
- After speaking out against the war, King lost his influence with Johnson and became politically isolated from national decision-making
- This was particularly damaging because Johnson had been one of the most supportive presidents on civil rights issues
Increased FBI surveillance:
- J. Edgar Hoover, director of the FBI, had been an implacable opponent of King throughout his public life
- Hoover kept Johnson informed of King's anti-war activities and details of King's private life
- Hoover used his influence with Johnson to increase surveillance of King and the SCLC
- This surveillance placed additional pressure on King and his organisation
King's anti-war stance cost him crucial political alliances at a time when he needed them most. This isolation would significantly hamper his ability to advance the Poor People's Campaign.
The Poor People's Campaign and the assassination of Martin Luther King
The development of the Poor People's Campaign
By the end of 1967, King had developed a new campaign strategy:
Aims of the Poor People's Campaign:
- To reassert the principle of non-violent protest at a time when many young activists were abandoning it
- To unite a coalition of groups to aid the poor, not just black Americans but all poor people
- To address the serious economic problems faced by America's deprived communities
- To call for a major redistribution of economic wealth downward to aid the poor
Specific goals:
- King planned a march to Washington to persuade the US Congress to enact his proposed bill of rights for the disadvantaged
- This would require massive federal funding for poor relief programmes
- The funding needed would be far beyond the monies already granted by Congress for Johnson's Great Society programme
Great Society programme: Lyndon Johnson's attempt to eradicate poverty in the USA, also termed the War on Poverty. It was launched at the University of Michigan in 1965 and lasted until 1969. It involved various federal programmes aiming to eradicate poverty in inner cities and poor rural areas.
King's vision went significantly beyond Johnson's existing programmes, calling for a fundamental restructuring of economic priorities to benefit the poor.
The Memphis sanitation workers' strike, February 1968
In February 1968, an event occurred that King saw as an opportunity to launch his Poor People's Campaign:
- Sanitation workers in Memphis, Tennessee went on strike to win union recognition and improve their wages and working conditions
- King viewed the strike as a suitable cause to launch his campaign, as it highlighted the economic struggles of working people
- Initial demonstrations in favour of the strikers ended in chaos
- King's first visit to Memphis to support the strikers ended abruptly due to the disorder
King's prophetic Mason Temple speech, 3 April 1968
On 3 April 1968, King returned to Memphis and delivered a speech at the Mason Temple that would prove prophetic:
- He foresaw his own death, claiming that although he would enjoy a long life, that was not the most important thing
- He stated: "I am not worried about anything and I do not fear any man"
- The following day, he was assassinated
King's Final Words: The Mason Temple Speech
King's speech on 3 April 1968 has become known as his "I've Been to the Mountaintop" speech. In it, he spoke with remarkable prescience about his own mortality:
"Like anybody, I would like to live a long life. Longevity has its place. But I'm not concerned about that now. I just want to do God's will. And He's allowed me to go up to the mountain. And I've looked over. And I've seen the Promised Land. I may not get there with you. But I want you to know tonight, that we, as a people, will get to the promised land!"
These words, delivered just 24 hours before his assassination, demonstrated King's awareness of the dangers he faced and his unwavering commitment to the cause despite those risks.
The assassination, 4 April 1968
On 4 April 1968, Martin Luther King was assassinated at the Lorraine Motel, Memphis by a white assassin, James Earl Ray. The assassination shocked the nation and marked a turning point in the civil rights movement.
Source analysis: Ralph Abernathy's speech
On 7 April 1968, the Reverend Ralph Abernathy, one of King's closest associates, delivered a speech at the West Hunter Street Baptist Church in Atlanta (King's home city). Abernathy became acting leader of the SCLC following King's death. His speech provides important insights into how King's supporters viewed his death:
Key points from Abernathy's speech:
King's philosophy of love:
You were our leader and we were your disciples. Those who killed you did not know that you loved them and that you worked for them as well. For, so often, you said to us: 'Love your enemies. Bless them that curse you and pray for them that despitefully use you.'
Abernathy emphasised King's commitment to loving even his enemies, highlighting the Christian and non-violent foundations of King's philosophy.
Black Americans' response:
Martin, I want you to know that black people loved you. Some people say that they were just burning and looting in the cities of the nation at the time. But you and I know that just folk, poor people, have had a hard time during these difficult days.
Abernathy defended the riots that followed King's death, arguing that they represented frustration and grief rather than a rejection of King's non-violent methods. He suggested that poor people were expressing their feelings that King had "died for us".
The continuation of the movement:
They thought they could kill our movement by killing you, Martin.
Abernathy asserted that King's assassination would not end the civil rights movement, though events would prove this hope to be only partially true.
The immediate effect of Martin Luther King's assassination
National response
King's assassination by a white assassin caused widespread shock and grief:
- There was national outrage and an outpouring of grief across the country
- King's funeral in Atlanta, Georgia was attended by most of the major political figures in America, as 1968 was an election year
- Politicians recognised the need to show respect and solidarity with the black community
Riots across America
Despite King's commitment to non-violence, his death triggered widespread rioting by black Americans:
- Riots occurred in cities across the USA
- The National Guard was called out to protect federal government buildings in Washington DC, the nation's capital
- The riots reflected the deep anger and frustration in black communities, as well as grief at King's death
- The violence also demonstrated that many black Americans had moved beyond King's philosophy of non-violent protest
The riots following King's assassination revealed a painful irony: the death of America's most prominent advocate for non-violence sparked the very violence he had spent his life opposing. This demonstrated both the depth of grief and anger in black communities and the extent to which King's philosophy of non-violence was already losing influence among younger activists.
Crisis of leadership in the SCLC
The SCLC faced a severe leadership crisis following King's death:
- Under the nominal leadership of the Reverend Ralph Abernathy, the SCLC was riven with factionalism (torn apart by internal divisions and competing groups)
- Without King's charismatic leadership and moral authority, the organisation struggled to maintain unity and direction
- Different factions within the SCLC disagreed about the organisation's future direction
The failure of Resurrection City
Abernathy attempted to continue King's final campaign by staging a Poor People's Campaign event in Washington:
Resurrection City:
- Created on the National Mall, between the Lincoln Memorial and Capitol Hill (home of the US Congress)
- A canvas and wooden encampment designed to highlight poverty in America
- Quickly deteriorated into a sea of mud due to poor weather
- At its height, 2,500 protestors camped there
The failure:
- Inadequately funded and without clear leadership
- The National Parks Service (which owned the National Mall) served the SCLC with a bill for $71,000 to pay for the damage
- Dismantled on 24 June 1968, just over two months after King's death
- The failure of Resurrection City symbolised the decline of the SCLC and the non-violent movement
The Symbolic End of an Era
The failure of Resurrection City represented more than just a failed protest—it symbolised the end of King's vision for a unified, non-violent movement addressing economic inequality. Without King's leadership, charisma, and moral authority, the movement could not sustain the momentum or unity needed to achieve its ambitious goals.
The contrast between the success of the 1963 March on Washington (which King led) and the failure of Resurrection City (which occurred after his death) demonstrates how essential King was to the movement's effectiveness.
Martin Luther King's impact on the move for greater equality
The collapse of movement unity
With King's death, the semblance of unity in the civil rights movement evaporated:
- Radicalised groups such as the SNCC, CORE and the Black Panthers completely abandoned non-violent campaigning
- They increasingly embraced Black Power ideology and, in some cases, armed self-defence
- The SCLC declined into irrelevance, unable to provide effective leadership without King
- The civil rights movement became fragmented, with different organisations pursuing conflicting strategies
King's successes: ending legal segregation
King had achieved remarkable success in his primary goal:
- He had focused the USA on the abolition of legal segregation in the southern states
- In this aim, he was very successful
- Through campaigns like the Birmingham Campaign (1963), the March on Washington (1963), and the Selma to Montgomery marches (1965), King had helped secure major legislative victories
- The Civil Rights Act of 1964 and the Voting Rights Act of 1965 were landmark achievements
- Legal segregation in the South had been largely dismantled
King's success in ending legal segregation represented a monumental achievement in American history. Within a decade of sustained activism, he helped dismantle a system of racial oppression that had existed for nearly a century since Reconstruction. This demonstrates the power of sustained non-violent protest when combined with moral clarity and strategic brilliance.
King's failures: social and economic inequality
However, King failed to address the deeper problems facing black Americans:
De facto segregation:
- Even after King's death, de facto segregation still existed across the USA
- This was segregation that existed in practice, even without laws enforcing it
- It proved much harder to challenge than legal segregation
Economic and social disparities:
- Black Americans continued to suffer from higher unemployment than white Americans
- They had access to poorer housing than white Americans
- They had worse educational opportunities than white Americans
Why King failed in these areas:
- Economic and social inequality required systemic changes to American capitalism and society
- These problems affected the entire country, not just the South
- Non-violent protest was less effective against economic structures than against unjust laws
- King's Chicago campaign and Poor People's Campaign demonstrated the limitations of his methods when applied to these problems
- He was assassinated before he could fully develop new strategies to address economic inequality
Understanding King's Limitations
It's crucial to understand that King's failure to address economic and social inequality was not due to a lack of commitment or vision. Rather, these problems required:
- Fundamental restructuring of American economic systems
- Sustained political will that extended beyond civil rights legislation
- Solutions that affected all of American society, not just the South
- Long-term commitment that King's assassination cut short
King recognised these challenges in his final years and was attempting to develop new strategies, but his assassination prevented him from fully realising this vision.
Assessment of King's overall legacy
King's legacy is mixed but undeniably significant:
Achievements:
- Successfully challenged legal segregation in the South
- Raised national and international awareness of racial injustice
- Helped secure major civil rights legislation
- Inspired millions with his vision of racial equality and his philosophy of non-violent resistance
- Brought moral authority to the civil rights movement
Limitations:
- Failed to address de facto segregation effectively
- Unable to solve economic inequality
- Lost political influence in his final years due to his anti-war stance
- His death left the movement without a unifying leader
Lasting impact:
- Despite his failures in addressing economic inequality, King remains one of the most important figures in American history
- His "I Have a Dream" speech and his philosophy of non-violent resistance continue to inspire social justice movements worldwide
- The problems he identified in his final years regarding economic inequality and systemic racism remain relevant today
Key Points to Remember:
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Chicago Campaign (1966): King's attempt to address northern discrimination failed due to poor SCLC organisation, powerful opposition from Mayor Daley, and the difficulty of challenging de facto segregation. This exposed the limitations of tactics that had worked in the South.
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Vietnam War stance (1967): King's opposition to the Vietnam War, particularly his Riverside Church speech comparing US tactics to the Nazis, cost him support from mainstream civil rights leaders and President Johnson, leading to his political isolation.
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Poor People's Campaign (1967-68): King's final campaign aimed to unite all poor people and demand economic redistribution, but was cut short by his assassination on 4 April 1968 in Memphis.
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Immediate aftermath: King's assassination caused nationwide riots, a leadership crisis in the SCLC, and the failure of Resurrection City demonstrated the movement's disarray without his leadership.
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Mixed legacy: King successfully ended legal segregation in the South but failed to address de facto segregation and economic inequality that continued to affect black Americans across the USA after his death. However, his vision and philosophy continue to inspire movements for social justice worldwide.