Mass Migration Into Harlem From 1905 (Edexcel A-Level History): Revision Notes
Mass Migration Into Harlem From 1905
Introduction to Harlem
Harlem, located on Manhattan Island in New York City, became perhaps the most famous black American community created in the northern United States. The development of Harlem represents both the opportunities and challenges faced by black Americans who migrated north from the former slave states, seeking what many viewed as the promised land of freedom. Harlem also became the birthplace of a distinctive black American urban culture, beginning with the Harlem Renaissance in the 1920s.
The transformation of Harlem into a predominantly black neighbourhood occurred in the early 20th century, coinciding with major developments in New York City's infrastructure, particularly the extension of the subway system in 1904. This made Harlem more accessible and attractive for settlement.
Philip Payton and the foundation of black Harlem (1904-1905)
The transformation of Harlem into a predominantly black neighbourhood was largely driven by one man: Philip Payton, a black American entrepreneur. In 1904, Payton established the Afro-American Realty Company, which played a crucial role in creating opportunities for black Americans to settle in Harlem.
Payton's business strategy
Payton recognised the potential of the Harlem area when the subway system was extended there in 1904. His company pursued a straightforward but effective approach:
- Purchasing empty properties owned by white landlords
- Leasing properties in the area
- Selling and renting these properties specifically to black Americans
This made housing available in the middle of New York City, which was previously difficult for black Americans to access due to widespread housing discrimination. The availability of accommodation in such a central location helped fuel the Great Migration of black Americans from the Old South to northern cities.
Payton's legacy
Although Payton died of liver cancer in 1917, his foresight and entrepreneurial efforts were central to establishing Harlem as a thriving black community. His work laid the foundation for what would become a cultural and social hub for black Americans.
The Great Migration to Harlem (1920-1930)
The 1920s witnessed a dramatic demographic transformation in Harlem, driven by mass migration from the southern states.
Migration statistics
Between 1920 and 1930, the racial composition of Harlem changed significantly:
- Approximately 87,000 black Americans arrived from the Old South and the West Indies
- At the same time, over 118,000 white Americans moved out of the area
- This dual movement created a predominantly black community
This massive population exchange fundamentally transformed Harlem's character and established it as a center of black American life.
Harlem as a black metropolis
The black American poet Claude McKay famously described Harlem as a "black metropolis" and "the black capital of the world". This reflected Harlem's emergence as the most significant centre of black American life, culture and politics in the United States.
The Harlem Renaissance (1920s-1930s)
A defining feature of Harlem's development was the Harlem Renaissance – a flourishing of distinctive black American urban culture that encompassed multiple art forms.
Origins and philosophy
By 1925, the New York Herald Tribune newspaper was declaring the emergence of the Harlem Renaissance. This creative movement was grounded in a powerful belief: that race relations could be improved, and society reshaped, through art. Artists used black experiences and disappointments to expose the contradictions of a supposedly democratic society that failed to treat all its citizens equally.
The Harlem Renaissance represented a significant shift in how black Americans expressed themselves culturally. Rather than simply protesting injustice through traditional political means, artists and writers used their creative work to challenge racial inequality and celebrate black identity.
Literary achievements
The literary arm of the movement produced several significant writers:
- Countee Cullen – poet who explored black identity and discrimination
- Langston Hughes – poet and writer who captured the rhythms and struggles of black life
- Zora Neale Hurston – novelist and anthropologist who celebrated black cultural traditions
These writers used their work to reflect black experiences and challenge racial inequality.
Visual arts
Visual artists made equally important contributions:
- Aaron Douglas – created powerful images emphasising black life
- William H. Johnson – produced works depicting daily realities of black Americans
- Malvin Gray Johnson – contributed unforgettable images highlighting the emotional aspects of black life
These artists created works that emphasised the emotional and daily realities of black life in America.
Decline of the Renaissance
The energy and creativity of the Harlem Renaissance declined in the 1930s under the economic pressure of the Great Depression. The social changes that the movement had hoped to achieve through art would not be realised until after the Second World War, which helped pull America out of its economic crisis.
The Limitations of Cultural Change:
Despite the remarkable artistic achievements of the Harlem Renaissance, the movement did not immediately translate into meaningful social and political change for black Americans. This highlights an important historical lesson: cultural progress does not automatically lead to social and economic equality.
Racial tensions and violence in Harlem
Despite the cultural achievements of the Harlem Renaissance, the concentration of black Americans in Harlem also created racial tensions. New York City had a history of racial violence – during the anti-conscription riots of 1863, free black Americans were targeted by white mobs who lynched them and destroyed black-owned property.
Harlem race riots
Harlem experienced its own race riots in:
- 1935 – reflecting ongoing racial tensions in the community
- 1943 – demonstrating that racial conflict persisted even during wartime
These riots revealed that moving north did not guarantee black Americans freedom from violence and discrimination. The promise of the "promised land" remained unfulfilled in many respects.
Economic decline after the Second World War
Following the end of World War II, Harlem's economic situation deteriorated significantly. Several factors contributed to this decline:
Overcrowding and housing discrimination
The black American community was confined to a relatively small area of Upper Manhattan, primarily due to continuing housing discrimination. The statistics were stark:
Extreme Population Density:
- In 2000, the population density of Manhattan as a whole was 2,000 people per square mile
- In the 1920s, Harlem suffered a population density of 215,000 people per square mile
This meant that Harlem's population density was over 100 times higher than the Manhattan average, resulting in severely cramped and substandard living conditions for many residents.
Economic hardship
Harlem suffered from multiple economic problems:
- High levels of poor accommodation – many residents lived in deteriorating housing
- Unemployment rates double that of New York City as a whole
- Widespread poverty and limited economic opportunities
Health and mortality statistics
Shocking Health Disparities:
A 1990 study revealed alarming disparities in life expectancy for Harlem residents:
- A 15-year-old female resident of Harlem had roughly a 65% chance of surviving to age 65 – comparable to a 15-year-old girl living in India
- A black man in Harlem had about a 37% chance of reaching age 65 – on par with an Angolan male in West Africa
These statistics demonstrated that living conditions in Harlem were comparable to those in developing countries, despite being in the heart of America's wealthiest city.
Social problems
As with other areas facing deprivation and desperation, Harlem experienced:
- High crime rates
- Drug abuse problems
- Social disintegration
The combination of overcrowding, poverty, unemployment, and limited opportunities created a cycle of deprivation that was difficult to break. These conditions highlight how discrimination in housing and employment had severe long-term consequences for community health and wellbeing.
Harlem as a centre for radical politics (1960s)
During the 1960s, Harlem's economic hardships and social problems made it an important base for radical black American political movements:
- Nation of Islam – religious and political organisation advocating black separatism
- Malcolm X and his followers – promoted black self-defence and independence
- Black Panther Party – revolutionary socialist organisation fighting for black liberation
These groups emerged partly in response to the ongoing poverty and discrimination faced by Harlem residents.
Cultural and religious vitality
Despite economic difficulties, Harlem maintained important strengths:
- A vibrant black culture that continued to produce music, art and literature
- A strong religious life with numerous churches serving as community centres
- Continued pride in black identity and heritage
Even during periods of severe economic hardship, Harlem's cultural and religious institutions provided sources of strength, community, and identity for residents. This resilience demonstrated the enduring importance of cultural institutions in sustaining communities through difficult times.
Revival and gentrification (1960s onwards)
From the 1960s, Harlem began to experience significant changes that would eventually lead to its revitalisation:
Demographic changes
Harlem experienced an influx of new residents:
- Middle-class black Americans attracted by the area's cultural significance
- Asian immigrants seeking affordable housing
- Hispanic communities settling in the neighbourhood
These groups were drawn by low housing prices compared to other parts of Manhattan.
Neighbourhood improvement
The influx of new residents, combined with a marked drop in crime rates, led to a gradual revitalisation of the area. Harlem began to experience:
- Property renovation and improvement
- New businesses opening
- Increased investment in the community
- Growing property values
The revival of Harlem from the 1960s onwards demonstrates how demographic changes and community investment can transform neighbourhoods. However, this process of gentrification also raised questions about affordability and displacement of long-term residents.
Primary source analysis: Langston Hughes on arriving in Harlem (1921)
Primary Source Analysis: Langston Hughes' First Impressions of Harlem
Langston Hughes, who became a major figure in the Harlem Renaissance, described his first experience of Harlem in Freedomways (1963):
Hughes' first impressions:
Hughes arrived in Harlem in September 1921, describing it as the beginning of the "Negro Renaissance". His account reveals what made Harlem special:
Welcoming institutions:
- The Harlem YMCA – where many young black male arrivals stayed when first reaching Harlem
- The Harlem Branch Library – led by Miss Ernestine Rose, who made newcomers feel welcome
- The Schomburg Collection – an important collection of materials relating to black history and culture
Cultural attractions:
- The Lincoln Theatre – where blues singers like Bessie Smith, Clara Smith, Trixie Smith and Mamie Smith performed
- Shuffle Along – the all-black hit musical where Florence Mills rose to fame
- Vibrant nightlife and entertainment venues
Hughes' devotion to Harlem:
Hughes' testimony reveals the deep attraction Harlem held for black Americans. Despite coming to New York to study at Columbia College, Hughes found it difficult to leave Harlem. He stated: "I was in love with Harlem long before I got there, and I still am in love with it."
What attracted Hughes to Harlem:
Hughes was fascinated by several aspects:
- "The sheer dark size of Harlem" – the scale of the black community
- The presence of accomplished black Americans including:
- Writers: James Weldon Johnson and Jessie Fauset
- Entertainers: Bert Williams and Ethel Waters
- Musicians: Duke Ellington
- Civil rights activists: Walter White
- The welcoming atmosphere where "everybody seemed to make me welcome"
Historical significance:
Hughes' account is valuable because:
- It provides a first-hand perspective from someone who became a leading cultural figure
- It captures the excitement and optimism of Harlem during its cultural peak
- It demonstrates why Harlem attracted talented and ambitious black Americans
- It reveals the sense of community and welcome that existed in Harlem during the 1920s
Exam tips
Key Analytical Approaches:
Analysis and argument:
- When discussing the Great Migration to Harlem, consider both push factors (discrimination and violence in the South) and pull factors (opportunities and community in Harlem)
- Evaluate the significance of individual actors like Philip Payton – how much can one person shape historical developments?
- Consider the limitations of the Harlem Renaissance – it produced important cultural achievements but did not immediately translate into social and political change
- Analyse the continuity in discrimination – moving north did not mean escaping racism, as shown by riots, housing discrimination and economic hardship
Using evidence effectively:
- Use specific statistics to demonstrate overcrowding (215,000 per square mile), migration (87,000 arrivals), and health disparities (37% chance of reaching 65)
- Reference named individuals like Philip Payton, Claude McKay, Langston Hughes, Countee Cullen, Zora Neale Hurston to show detailed knowledge
- Link cultural developments (Harlem Renaissance) to broader social context (ongoing discrimination and economic challenges)
- Use the Langston Hughes source to provide contemporary perspective and add depth to your arguments
Common pitfalls to avoid:
- Don't assume the Great Migration solved problems for black Americans – it created new challenges even while offering opportunities
- Don't present the Harlem Renaissance as purely positive – acknowledge its limitations and decline during the Great Depression
- Don't overlook the ongoing discrimination in the North – Harlem faced overcrowding, poor housing, unemployment and health disparities
- Don't ignore the complexity of Harlem's development – it was simultaneously a cultural success and an area of severe economic deprivation
Remember!
Key Points to Remember:
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Philip Payton's Afro-American Realty Company (founded 1904) was crucial in establishing Harlem as a black neighbourhood by purchasing and renting properties to black Americans after the subway extension.
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The Great Migration brought approximately 87,000 black Americans to Harlem between 1920 and 1930, while 118,000 white Americans left, transforming it into what Claude McKay called a "black metropolis".
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The Harlem Renaissance of the 1920s created a flourishing of black culture through writers (Langston Hughes, Countee Cullen, Zora Neale Hurston) and artists (Aaron Douglas, William H. Johnson), though it declined during the Great Depression.
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Post-war economic decline saw Harlem suffer extreme overcrowding (215,000 people per square mile), unemployment double that of New York City, and life expectancy comparable to developing countries.
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From the 1960s onwards, Harlem experienced revitalisation through an influx of middle-class residents of various backgrounds and a marked drop in crime, though it remained a centre for radical black political movements during this period.