The New Deal and Race Relations, 1933-41 (Edexcel A-Level History): Revision Notes
Eleanor Roosevelt
Transforming the role of First Lady
Eleanor Roosevelt fundamentally changed what it meant to be First Lady of the United States. Before 1933, the president's wife held a primarily ceremonial and social role, supporting her husband at official functions and public events. Eleanor Roosevelt broke this mould by becoming actively involved in policy-making and political advocacy.
This transformation was unprecedented in American history. No previous First Lady had attempted to influence federal policy so directly or maintain such a visible public presence in political matters.
Her intelligence, powerful personality, and extensive social and political connections gave her significant influence over her husband, President Franklin D. Roosevelt (FDR). She regularly advised him on federal policy and became particularly focused on championing the rights of women and ethnic minorities. Eleanor effectively served as an unofficial member of FDR's advisory team, making her the first First Lady to play such an active political role.
Methods of public engagement and advocacy
Press conferences
Eleanor Roosevelt's impact was immediate and highly visible. Just two days after FDR's inauguration as president in March 1933, she held her first press conference. During the New Deal years (1933-41), she held an extraordinary 348 press conferences, using these platforms to explain to journalists and the public what she believed the government should be doing. She particularly highlighted issues affecting young people facing extreme poverty and lack of opportunity.
Letter-writing campaign
Eleanor Roosevelt actively encouraged Americans, especially young people, to write to her at the White House. The response was overwhelming—she received over 300,000 letters from 1933 onwards during her husband's presidency. By January 1934, thousands of these letters described:
- Racial violence
- Poverty and homelessness created by racial discrimination
- Pleas for federal assistance
This letter-writing campaign was a powerful tool for gathering evidence. The letters provided Eleanor with firsthand accounts of suffering that she could use to pressure government officials, making abstract policy issues concrete and personal.
These letters provided Eleanor with direct evidence of the suffering experienced by African Americans across the country, which she used to pressure government officials to take action.
Direct interventions with government officials
Eleanor Roosevelt did not simply highlight problems—she actively lobbied government officials to address racial discrimination. Key examples include:
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Harry Hopkins (cabinet member responsible for New Deal relief programmes): She frequently forwarded letters describing racial discrimination to Hopkins, urging him to investigate and take corrective action.
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Donald Richberg (National Recovery Administrator): She pressured him to investigate race-based wage differentials implemented by southern industries, where African American workers were paid less than white workers for the same jobs.
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Claude Swanson (Navy Secretary): She questioned why black Americans in the US Navy were confined to mess hall assignments—servile positions serving food rather than combat or technical roles.
Despite her persistent efforts, these interventions achieved very limited success. For example, African Americans remained in servile positions aboard American warships throughout this period. This demonstrates the deep-seated nature of racial discrimination and the resistance Eleanor faced from established institutions.
The anti-lynching campaign
Eleanor Roosevelt gave her support to the NAACP (National Association for the Advancement of Colored People) campaign to introduce a federal anti-lynching law. Lynching—the illegal murder of individuals by mobs, predominantly targeting African Americans in the South—was a horrific reality of this period, yet no federal law existed to prosecute these crimes.
Conflict with President Roosevelt
This advocacy brought Eleanor into direct conflict with her husband. President Roosevelt believed he could not openly support anti-lynching legislation because it would alienate southern white Democrats, whose support he needed in Congress to pass New Deal programmes. This reveals the political constraints that limited both Roosevelts' ability to advance civil rights, even when they personally supported such measures.
Evidence: The letter to Walter White (March 1936)
A private letter Eleanor wrote to Walter White, the executive secretary of the NAACP, on 19 March 1936, reveals her frustration with these constraints. In the letter, she explained:
- The President believed lynching was unconstitutional for the federal government to address directly
- FDR thought it was a question of education in the states, requiring local citizens to create public opinion against lynching
- The federal government could only intervene in matters with an interstate aspect (like kidnapping)
- She was "deeply troubled" about the situation and found it terrible to "stand by and let it continue"
Primary Source Analysis
This letter is particularly valuable as historical evidence because it shows:
- Eleanor's private thoughts versus her public position
- Her understanding of constitutional limitations on federal power
- The tension between moral conviction and political reality
- Her continued commitment to work behind the scenes despite public setbacks
This source demonstrates that while Eleanor sympathised with the NAACP's goals, she understood the constitutional and political limitations that prevented federal action. It also shows she continued to work behind the scenes, promising to speak with senators about the issue.
The Black Cabinet
Mary McLeod Bethune's appointment
One of Eleanor Roosevelt's most significant achievements was ensuring African Americans were appointed to federal positions. At her insistence, President Roosevelt made Mary McLeod Bethune his special adviser on minority affairs in 1935. That same year, Bethune founded the National Council of Negro Women, demonstrating her prominence in civil rights activism.
In 1936, Bethune achieved even greater national prominence when she was appointed director of the Negro Affairs Division of the National Youth Administration (NYA), making her one of the highest-ranking African Americans in the federal government.
Formation and purpose
In 1936, Bethune became chairperson of an informal group called the 'Black Cabinet' (sometimes referred to in the press as the 'Black Brains Trust', mirroring FDR's white advisory group). This was a group of federally appointed African American officials whose purpose was to:
- Help plan priorities for the black American community
- Provide information and advice to Eleanor Roosevelt
- Advocate for African American interests within government programmes
The term "Black Cabinet" was unofficial—it was not a formal government body. Rather, it represented an informal network of African American officials who coordinated their efforts to influence policy. The name itself was significant, as it acknowledged these officials as advisers comparable to the President's official Cabinet members.
Key members
The most important members of the Black Cabinet were:
- Mary McLeod Bethune: Special adviser on minority affairs and later director of the Negro Affairs Division of the NYA
- William Hastie: Assistant solicitor in the Department of the Interior
- Robert Weaver: Adviser on Negro Affairs in the Public Works Administration
- Robert Vann: Assistant to the US Attorney General
These individuals represented a significant step forward in African American participation in federal government, even though their ability to change discriminatory practices remained limited.
The Marion Anderson incident (1939)
Background
In early 1939, Marion Anderson, a prominent African American opera singer, was invited to sing in Washington DC on Easter Sunday as part of a national celebration. She was scheduled to perform at Constitution Hall, located near the White House. However, Constitution Hall was owned by the Daughters of the American Revolution, an all-white organisation, which refused to allow an African American to perform in their venue.
Eleanor Roosevelt's response
On 27 February 1939, Eleanor Roosevelt made a dramatic public gesture: she resigned from the Daughters of the American Revolution in protest. She then arranged for Marion Anderson to sing on the steps of the Lincoln Memorial in central Washington DC instead. She persuaded President FDR to give his public support to the event.
Significance of the event
On Easter Sunday, 75,000 people turned up to hear Marion Anderson sing—an extraordinary turnout that demonstrated widespread support. However, the event also revealed the depth of racial prejudice: despite being invited, Vice President John Nance Garner of Texas and all but one of the US Supreme Court justices failed to appear.
Historical Impact of the Marion Anderson Concert
This event became one of the most high-profile symbolic gestures in favour of African Americans during the New Deal years. It attracted the largest crowd to hear an African American performer until Martin Luther King Jr. delivered his famous 'I have a dream' speech in August 1963, also at the Lincoln Memorial.
The absence of Vice President Garner and Supreme Court justices highlighted how even America's highest officials were unwilling to publicly challenge racial segregation, demonstrating the limits of symbolic victories.
Limitations of Eleanor Roosevelt's influence
Despite Eleanor Roosevelt's tireless advocacy, fundamental barriers remained that she could not overcome. Understanding these limitations is crucial for assessing her historical impact realistically.
Continued racial segregation in New Deal programmes
Despite Eleanor Roosevelt's tireless advocacy, she was unable to eliminate racial discrimination from New Deal programmes. Segregation remained embedded in federal projects:
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Tennessee Valley Authority (TVA): While this programme brought electricity to the impoverished Upper South, benefiting both black and white Americans, African American workers were not allowed to live next to white workers at the TVA camp at Norris, Tennessee.
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Work relief camps: Almost every work relief camp and construction crew working on New Deal projects was divided on a racial basis, with separate facilities and often inferior conditions for black workers.
Understanding the Persistence of Discrimination
Even with a sympathetic First Lady and some supportive officials, racial discrimination in New Deal programmes persisted for several key reasons:
- Local administrators often controlled implementation and maintained segregationist policies
- Federal funding depended on cooperation from southern states and officials
- No federal civil rights legislation existed to prohibit such discrimination
- The political power of southern Democrats in Congress blocked reform efforts
Political and constitutional constraints
Eleanor Roosevelt faced significant obstacles:
- Political constraints: FDR needed southern Democratic support in Congress, limiting his ability to challenge racial discrimination openly
- Constitutional limitations: The federal government's power to intervene in state matters was restricted, particularly regarding issues like lynching
- Resistance from officials: Many local and federal officials actively resisted efforts to address racial discrimination
These limitations meant that while Eleanor Roosevelt raised awareness and achieved some symbolic victories, fundamental patterns of racial discrimination in New Deal programmes persisted throughout the 1930s.
Historical significance
Eleanor Roosevelt's work during the New Deal era was groundbreaking in several ways:
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She redefined the role of First Lady, establishing a precedent for political activism and policy involvement that influenced future First Ladies.
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She provided a voice for marginalised groups, particularly African Americans and young people, ensuring their concerns reached the highest levels of government.
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She helped secure African American participation in federal government through the Black Cabinet, even though their power was limited.
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She used symbolic gestures (like the Marion Anderson concert) to challenge racial discrimination publicly when legal and political avenues were blocked.
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Her efforts revealed the tensions between ideals and political reality in American democracy—the gap between what was morally right and what was politically possible given the power of southern Democrats and constitutional constraints.
However, it is crucial to recognise that her influence had clear limits. Structural racial discrimination in New Deal programmes continued, anti-lynching legislation failed to pass, and segregation remained the norm in federal projects. Eleanor Roosevelt's advocacy was significant and unprecedented, but it could not overcome the deep-seated racism of American society and politics in the 1930s.
Key Takeaways
Remember: Eleanor Roosevelt and the New Deal Era
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Eleanor Roosevelt transformed the role of First Lady from ceremonial to actively political, becoming the first to play a significant role in policy-making.
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She used press conferences (348 total) and letter-writing (300,000+ letters received) to engage with the public and advocate for disadvantaged groups, particularly African Americans and young people.
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She supported the NAACP's anti-lynching campaign but faced conflict with FDR, who feared alienating southern Democrats—highlighting the political constraints on civil rights progress.
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Eleanor Roosevelt championed the appointment of African Americans to federal positions, including Mary McLeod Bethune and the Black Cabinet, giving African Americans unprecedented (though limited) influence in government.
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The Marion Anderson incident (1939) was a high-profile symbolic victory: after the Daughters of the American Revolution banned Anderson from Constitution Hall, Eleanor resigned from the organisation and arranged for Anderson to sing at the Lincoln Memorial to a crowd of 75,000 people.
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Despite her efforts, racial segregation persisted in New Deal programmes (like the TVA), and constitutional and political constraints severely limited the success of her advocacy—demonstrating the gap between moral ideals and political reality in 1930s America.