Racial Discrimination in Other New Deal Legislation (Edexcel A-Level History): Revision Notes
Racial Discrimination in Other New Deal Legislation
Introduction: Southern Democrat influence on the New Deal
While President Franklin Roosevelt introduced ambitious New Deal programmes to combat the Great Depression between 1933 and 1937, the influence of southern Democrat politicians ensured that these reforms did not extend civil rights to black Americans. Despite having a Democrat president, southern Democrats in Congress used their political power to block any legislation that might challenge racial segregation or improve conditions for African Americans.
Roosevelt's political survival depended on maintaining southern Democrat support in Congress. This created a fundamental contradiction: a progressive president forced to compromise with conservative, racist politicians to implement his economic reforms.
Roosevelt needed the support of southern Democrats to pass his New Deal legislation. This political dependence meant he could not afford to challenge the South's system of racial discrimination. As a result, the Jim Crow Laws remained in place, and New Deal programmes were implemented in ways that primarily benefited white Americans.
The Conservative Manifesto, 1937
In 1937, Democrat senator Josiah W. Bailey from North Carolina led the creation of the Conservative Manifesto, officially titled 'An Address to the People of the United States'. This document represented a significant turning point in New Deal politics.
Key demands of the Conservative Manifesto
The manifesto called for:
- Limited federal spending on New Deal programmes
- A completely independent Supreme Court (free from Roosevelt's influence)
- Greater power for state governments rather than federal government
- An end to major social and economic reform
The formation of the Conservative coalition
The Conservative Manifesto led to an informal alliance between southern Democrats and Republicans. This coalition worked together to oppose any further major New Deal reforms from 1937 to 1941. They were able to gain support because:
- The Roosevelt Recession of 1937-38 caused a return to economic downturn
- Bailey and his allies blamed this recession on excessive federal spending on social programmes
- Many politicians, both Democrat and Republican, became concerned about the cost and scope of New Deal intervention
This coalition effectively ended the radical phase of the New Deal that had characterised the period from 1933 to 1937, halting any further progressive reforms or civil rights legislation.
Southern Democrat tactics: Using racism to maintain power
Throughout the 1930s, southern Democrat politicians deliberately used racism as a political tool to win support from white voters. They positioned themselves as defenders of white supremacy and racial segregation.
Theodore Bilbo and the deportation amendment
Extreme Racism in Action: Theodore Bilbo's Deportation Amendment
Theodore Bilbo, a former governor of Mississippi, was elected to the US Senate in 1935. His extreme racism led him to propose an extraordinary amendment to federal legislation. Bilbo introduced an amendment to a bill designed to relieve unemployment and distress for all Americans. His amendment would have:
- Made federal funds available to deport all black Americans to Liberia in West Africa
- Effectively removed African Americans from the United States entirely
Although this amendment did not pass, it demonstrated the level of racist sentiment among some southern politicians and their willingness to propose such policies publicly.
Ensuring New Deal benefits went to white Americans
Southern Democrats used their political influence to ensure that:
- New Deal programmes primarily benefited white Americans
- The federal government made no attempt to interfere with Jim Crow Laws
- Racial segregation remained intact across the South
- African Americans received limited or no access to many New Deal benefits
Congressional control: The power of committees
Southern Democrat politicians wielded enormous influence because they controlled most of the committees in Congress. This control gave them the ability to block legislation before it could even be debated.
Key committees controlled by southern Democrats
Two committees were particularly important:
The House Ways and Means Committee
- Decided which bills could be debated in the House of Representatives
- Controlled the legislative agenda
- Could prevent civil rights legislation from being discussed
The House Rules Committee
- Also determined whether bills could be debated
- Acted as a gatekeeper for legislation
- Could effectively kill any bill by refusing to allow debate
Through their control of these committees, southern Democrats could stop any legislation that threatened racial segregation or promoted civil rights for black Americans. This meant that even if Roosevelt had wanted to introduce civil rights reforms, they would likely have been blocked before reaching a vote.
The South's power within the Democratic Party
An extract from historian David M. Kennedy's 1999 book Freedom from Fear illustrates the extent of southern power within the Democratic Party. Kennedy argued that since the Reconstruction era (1865-77), the 'solid South' had been the foundation of the Democratic Party.
The two-thirds majority rule
At the Democratic Party convention in summer 1936, southern Democrats had traditionally held power through the two-thirds majority rule for electing presidential nominees. This rule meant that:
- Any candidate needed two-thirds of delegates to win the nomination
- The South could effectively veto any candidate they considered 'unsafe' on racial issues
- This gave southern states disproportionate influence over the party
In 1936, southern Democrats reluctantly agreed to give up this rule. However, this change revealed a worrying truth for southern politicians.
Roosevelt's 1936 victory: A warning to the South
Roosevelt's overwhelming victory in the 1936 presidential election demonstrated that a Democrat president could be elected without a single southern electoral vote. This was deeply unsettling for southern politicians because:
- It showed their traditional power base was no longer essential for Democratic victories
- Northern industrial states and urban voters could deliver victory without the South
- This might encourage future presidents to challenge southern racial policies
Senator Ellison 'Cotton Ed' Smith: Extreme racism on display
Racist Protests at the 1936 Democratic Convention
The 1936 Democratic convention revealed the depth of racist sentiment among southern Democrats. Senator Ellison 'Cotton Ed' Smith of South Carolina provided a shocking example:
First walkout: When a black clergyman delivered the invocation (opening prayer) at the convention, Smith exploded with racist remarks. He proclaimed: 'By God, he's as black as melted midnight!' Smith then announced: 'This mongrel meeting ain't no place for a white man!' and walked out. He added: 'I don't want any blue gummed, slew footed Senegambian praying for me politically.'
Second walkout: Smith left the convention again when Arthur Mitchell, the first black Democrat ever elected to Congress, seconded Roosevelt's nomination. Mitchell was a Congressman from Chicago, representing the growing political power of African Americans in northern cities.
These incidents demonstrated that even at the national party convention, southern Democrats felt emboldened to express openly racist views and oppose any recognition of black political participation.
The end of New Deal radicalism, 1937-41
From 1937 to 1941, the Conservative coalition of southern Democrats and Republicans successfully:
- Limited any further major New Deal programmes
- Prevented civil rights legislation from being passed
- Ensured the federal government did not interfere with state-level racial segregation
- Brought the radical phase of the New Deal (1933-37) to an end
The historian David M. Kennedy described this as southern representatives using their power to 'stymie the legislative process' and 'write finis to the New Deal chapter in American history'. In other words, they effectively ended the transformative period of New Deal reform.
Why southern Democrats opposed a Democrat president
Despite Franklin Roosevelt being a Democrat president, southern Democrat politicians in Congress worked to block his legislation for several reasons:
Understanding the Southern Democrat Opposition
- Protection of racial segregation: Roosevelt's coalition included northern liberals and urban voters who might support civil rights reforms
- Fear of federal interference: New Deal programmes increased federal power, which might eventually be used to challenge Jim Crow Laws
- Economic conservatism: Many southern Democrats were more conservative on economic issues than northern Democrats
- States' rights ideology: They believed state governments should have more power than the federal government, particularly on racial matters
- Political survival: Southern politicians needed to maintain support from white voters who demanded the continuation of racial segregation
Impact on black Americans
The influence of southern Democrats during the New Deal period meant that:
- African Americans received limited benefits from New Deal programmes compared to white Americans
- The 'great social and economic reforms' of the New Deal did not extend to civil rights
- Jim Crow Laws remained unchallenged at the federal level
- No significant civil rights legislation was passed during the 1930s
- The federal government prioritised economic recovery over racial justice
This situation would continue until after the Second World War, when changing social conditions and growing political activism by African Americans began to challenge the southern Democrats' control over racial policy.
Remember!
Key Points to Remember:
- The Conservative Manifesto (1937), led by Josiah W. Bailey, created an alliance between southern Democrats and Republicans that blocked further New Deal reforms and any civil rights legislation
- Southern Democrats controlled key Congressional committees (House Ways and Means and House Rules), giving them the power to prevent bills from being debated
- Southern politicians used racism as a political tool to win white votes, as shown by Theodore Bilbo's deportation amendment and Ellison Smith's convention walkouts
- Roosevelt needed southern Democrat support to pass New Deal legislation, which prevented him from challenging Jim Crow Laws or extending civil rights to black Americans
- From 1937 to 1941, the Conservative coalition ended the radical phase of the New Deal and ensured New Deal programmes primarily benefited white Americans
- The 1936 election showed a Democrat could win without southern electoral votes, threatening southern Democrats' traditional power within the party