Context (OCR A-Level English Literature): Revision Notes
Context
English chronicle plays
During Queen Elizabeth I's reign (1558-1603), England was experiencing a surge in global power and influence. This was particularly evident after the English navy's famous victory over the Spanish Armada in 1588. As patriotic feelings swept the nation, audiences were eager to see dramatised versions of England's history performed on stage.
The late 16th century was a period of intense national pride in England. The defeat of the Spanish Armada had established England as a major European power, and this cultural moment created the perfect conditions for chronicle plays to flourish.
What are chronicle plays?
Chronicle plays, also known as history plays, were theatrical works that portrayed the lives of England's monarchs and nobility from the past. These plays explored both the successes and failures of historical figures, bringing England's heritage to life for theatre audiences.
Whilst William Shakespeare is the most famous writer of chronicle plays, the genre existed before both Shakespeare and Marlowe began writing. Many of their contemporaries also contributed to this popular theatrical form.
The purpose and features of chronicle plays
Playwright Thomas Heywood believed these plays should teach citizens about the dangers of disobeying their rulers. However, not all chronicle plays presented monarchs positively. Both Marlowe's Edward II and Shakespeare's Richard III (1592-94) depict flawed kings who struggle against their barons, ultimately losing both power and crown.
Not all chronicle plays glorified monarchy. Many, including Edward II, presented psychologically complex and flawed rulers, challenging audiences to question the nature of power and leadership rather than simply celebrating royal authority.
These plays served several important functions:
- They examined political crises from England's past
- They explored themes of moral leadership and political power
- They questioned the dynamics between monarchs and nobles
- They investigated issues of royal succession and kingly duty
- They portrayed the personal lives and struggles of rulers
The plays typically resembled epic poetry in their focus on the lives and deaths of heroic figures.
Historical accuracy and dramatic licence
Playwrights aimed to follow actual events as closely and chronologically as possible. They drew their source material from historical texts, particularly Raphael Holinshed's 1597 Chronicles of England, Scotland, and Ireland.
However, dramatists often took creative liberties with the historical timeline. Marlowe's Edward II condenses 23 years of history, selecting the most significant events of the king's reign whilst altering the sequence of some events for dramatic effect.
Historical accuracy was important to chronicle playwrights, but dramatic effectiveness took precedence. The goal was to create compelling theatre that captured the essence of historical events, even if the precise chronology was adjusted for the stage.
Marlowe's contribution to the genre
By the late 16th century, the chronicle play was developing into a sophisticated art form. Marlowe was one of the first playwrights to elevate the genre beyond simple political storytelling, adding emotional depth and psychological complexity. His characters—Edward, Queen Isabella, Mortimer Junior, and Gaveston—are not merely historical figures but complex human beings with inner conflicts.
Edward's character particularly demonstrates this complexity. He defies the social expectations of his time and faces consequences for this, yet his own personality flaws, including frivolity and excessive pride, also contribute to his downfall.
Many critics consider Marlowe's achievement comparable to Shakespeare's history plays, such as Richard III and the Henry VI trilogy (1589-92), which helped define the genre.
Chronicle plays declined in popularity by the 1630s, but they remain valuable dramatic interpretations of English history from the 12th to 16th centuries.
Historical Edward's reign
Edward II of England (1284-1327) was a divisive and controversial monarch. His rule from 1307 to 1327 was characterised by military defeats, political turmoil, personal conflict, and ongoing power struggles with English nobles and church officials. Most events depicted in Marlowe's play, including the king's brutal death, are based on the historical Edward II's life.
Edward's early years and character
Unlike his father Edward I (1239-1307), the young Edward II showed little interest in warfare or military pursuits. Instead, he enjoyed activities such as swimming, ditchdigging, and theatrical performances. When he became king in 1307, Edward II immediately began reversing his father's policies and promoting individuals who had opposed Edward I.
To secure an alliance with France, Edward II married Isabella (1292-1358), daughter of King Philip IV of France.
Edward II's interests were highly unusual for a medieval king. His preference for manual labour and entertainment over military training made him appear weak to the nobility, who expected their monarch to be a warrior-king like his father.
Conflict with the nobility
Throughout his reign, Edward challenged the power and influence of England's aristocracy. Whilst earlier English monarchs had enjoyed absolute authority, by Edward II's time, the situation had changed. Earls, barons, and other members of the peerage (titled nobility) also held significant power and governmental responsibility.
Parliament: A governing body consisting of noblemen and representatives from the common people, established in the 13th century.
The conflict during Edward II's reign stemmed from both policy disagreements and personal rivalries. Many nobles considered Edward II incompetent from the start. They insisted on adding a clause to his coronation oath requiring him to honour and uphold Parliament's decisions.
By the 14th century, the balance of power in England had shifted. Kings could no longer rule absolutely—they had to negotiate with Parliament and the nobility. Edward II's failure to recognise and work within these constraints proved disastrous.
The nobles were particularly troubled by Edward's appointment of 'favourites' or 'minions'—individuals he promoted based on personal preference rather than merit. These included:
- Piers Gaveston (c. 1284-1312), a Frenchman
- Hugh Despenser the Elder (c. 1262-1326)
- Hugh Despenser the Younger (c. 1285-1326)
By 1308, just two years into Edward's reign, organised opposition had begun forming.
The Ordinances and Gaveston's fate
In 1311, noblemen close to the king created the Ordinances, a set of rules designed to limit Edward II's power. These regulations aimed to prevent the king from mismanaging national finances and making appointments based purely on personal relationships.
One key condition of the Ordinances demanded Gaveston's removal from England. Although Gaveston was exiled twice, Edward II arranged for his return each time. By 1312, the barons had reached breaking point. They captured and executed Gaveston.
Gaveston's execution in 1312 marked a critical turning point. The barons' willingness to execute the king's favourite demonstrated that Edward II's authority was severely limited and that the nobility would use violence to assert their power.
The Scottish war and military defeat
Edward II's troubles extended beyond domestic politics. England was engaged in a war with Scotland, a conflict inherited from his father. Scottish king Robert I (Robert the Bruce, 1274-1329) was crowned in 1306 and began working to establish Scotland's independence from England.
Edward II invaded Scotland in 1314, attempting to defeat Bruce. Instead, England suffered a crushing defeat at the Battle of Bannockburn in 1314. This victory effectively made Scotland an independent nation.
The Battle of Bannockburn was a catastrophic military failure that severely damaged Edward II's authority and credibility. It demonstrated to his nobles and subjects that he lacked the military competence expected of an English king.
Thomas of Lancaster's brief control
The English defeat empowered Thomas, Earl of Lancaster (c. 1278-1322), who had consistently opposed Edward II. Lancaster seized political leadership in 1315. However, his rule proved even less effective than Edward's. He implemented few reforms, and England descended into greater chaos.
By 1318, a group of barons intervened, mediating between Edward II and Lancaster to restore some stability.
Edward's recovery and the Despensers
Gradually, Edward II regained influence and power. In 1322, he defeated Lancaster in battle and had him executed. With the Despensers (Hugh the Elder and Hugh the Younger) supporting him, Edward II led a newly effective government—though it was also highly corrupt.
Isabella and Mortimer Junior's rebellion
Queen Isabella, meanwhile, grew increasingly resentful of being neglected in favour of the Despensers. In 1325, she travelled to France where she began an affair with Roger Mortimer Junior (1287-1330), an earl Edward II had exiled.
By 1326, Isabella and Mortimer Junior were planning to overthrow Edward II. They returned to England with a substantial army.
Isabella and Mortimer's forces easily overcame English resistance. They had the Despensers executed, imprisoned Edward II, and forced him to abdicate. His son was crowned Edward III in 1327. Later that year, Edward II was violently executed at Berkeley Castle in Gloucestershire.
Edward II's deposition and murder marked one of the most dramatic downfalls in English royal history. The fact that his own wife led the rebellion against him underscores how completely he had lost support among the English nobility and even his own family.
After Edward II's death
Since Edward III was only 14 when crowned, Isabella and Mortimer Junior initially ruled in his name. However, by 1330, Edward III seized control, executing Mortimer Junior and imprisoning Isabella for their roles in his father's death.
Isabella spent two years under house arrest at Castle Rising in Norfolk before retiring to travel between residences in Norfolk and Hertford. She died at Hertford in 1358.
Timeline compression in the play
The play reflects most historical events chronologically, but Marlowe compresses the 23-year timeline for dramatic purposes:
Understanding Marlowe's Timeline Compression
Marlowe condensed over two decades of history into a five-act structure, prioritising dramatic impact over strict chronological accuracy. This compression creates a sense of rapid escalation and inevitable tragedy.
- Acts 1-2 and Act 3, Scene 1: Cover events from Gaveston's lifetime (1307-1312)
- Act 3, Scenes 2-3: Combine Gaveston's death with Lancaster's defeat—events actually separated by 10 years
- Acts 3-4: Cover 1322-1327, including Edward II's final years and the coup
- Act 5: Shows Edward III prosecuting Mortimer Junior and Isabella immediately after Edward II's murder, though this actually occurred three years later in 1330
Other historical alterations include:
- The Battle of Bannockburn (1314) is mentioned in Act 2, though it actually occurred after Gaveston's death in 1312
- The Spencers (Despensers) are promoted immediately after Gaveston dies in the play, though several years separated these events in reality
Edward and Gaveston's relationship
In Marlowe's play, Edward and Gaveston are lovers. Whilst the exact nature of their historical relationship remains unconfirmed, it is likely they were romantically involved in real life.
Gaveston's background and rise to power
Piers Gaveston (1284-1312) was the son of a knight from Gascony, France. He became Edward II's foster brother when Edward was 16 years old. The two young men quickly developed an intimate friendship.
Although Gaveston was not of noble birth, he was intelligent and ambitious. He exercised considerable influence over Edward II—an influence that troubled Edward I so greatly that he banished Gaveston from England.
When Edward I died in 1307, Edward II became king and immediately recalled Gaveston. Soon, Edward II began granting Gaveston extraordinary quantities of titles, land, and honours typically reserved for royal descendants. These honours included:
- Marriage to Margaret de Clare (1293-1342), Edward II's niece and daughter of the Earl of Gloucester
- The prestigious earldom of Cornwall
The nobles' resentment
The barons, themselves seeking political advancement, believed Edward II was showing unfair favouritism. They despised Gaveston, and his arrogant behaviour only increased their hostility.
Despite two banishments in 1309 and 1311, Gaveston remained a powerful favourite of the king. In 1312, jealous barons captured and executed him. The Earl of Warwick ordered the execution. The grieving king purchased an expensive tomb for Gaveston.
Several years later, Edward II developed a similarly close relationship with Hugh Despenser the Younger (Spencer in the play), who also received numerous promotions.
Political implications of male favourites
The political promotions of Edward's male lovers created a significant conflict of interest, clearly depicted in the play. Because his lovers are men, they can hold important governmental roles, whereas female lovers, even queens, cannot exercise such power.
Gender and Political Power in Medieval England
The play illustrates a crucial paradox: because Edward's lovers are men, they can occupy positions of real political power that women cannot access. This creates a unique political crisis where the king's personal relationships directly threaten the nobility's power structure.
The play illustrates this through Queen Isabella's character. Although she also pursues an affair hoping to gain political influence, her lover Mortimer Junior ultimately controls and limits her power rather than sharing it.
Social and religious attitudes towards homosexuality
Edward II was not the only English monarch to have a same-sex relationship. Mary II, James I, and William III also had same-sex lovers. However, Edward's openness about his love for Gaveston was unusually risky.
Homosexuality in 14th-Century England
Homosexual conduct was a criminal offence in 14th-century England. The Catholic Church, the only institution powerful enough to challenge the king, wielded enormous influence. Church doctrine held that sex was intended solely for procreation, not pleasure. Therefore, homosexuality was considered a sin against God. Since same-sex relationships could not lead to procreation, they were viewed as sinful.
The play's groundbreaking depiction
In the 16th century when Marlowe wrote Edward II, homosexuality remained widely condemned. The portrayal of same-sex lovers made the play groundbreaking for its time.
Actors and audiences in later centuries often focused on this aspect as central to the play's tragedy. Director Derek Jarman's 1991 film version—Jarman himself was a gay man living with AIDS—reflected on homophobia and the 1990s AIDS crisis.
Marlowe's decision to centre a play around a same-sex relationship was revolutionary. In an era when homosexuality was both criminal and sinful, presenting Edward and Gaveston's love with sympathy and complexity was an act of remarkable artistic courage.
Marlowe's sympathetic portrayal
Although Marlowe depicts prejudice and violence against Edward and Gaveston, he does not present either character as a blameless martyr. Both men are flawed and make disastrous mistakes. Edward particularly misuses his royal power for private purposes, endangering his kingdom.
However, at its core, the play demonstrates sympathy for the two lovers and acknowledges the considerable challenges they face in their society.
Key Points to Remember:
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Chronicle plays were popular during Elizabeth I's reign, dramatising England's royal history and exploring themes of political power, moral leadership, and royal responsibility.
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Marlowe elevated the genre by creating psychologically complex characters rather than simple historical figures, making Edward and others fully human with inner conflicts.
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The historical Edward II (1307-1327) was a controversial king whose reign featured power struggles with nobles, military defeats (particularly the Battle of Bannockburn), and conflicts over his favourites Gaveston and the Despensers.
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Edward's open same-sex relationship with Gaveston was groundbreaking subject matter for Marlowe's play, as homosexuality was criminal and condemned by the Church in both the 14th and 16th centuries.
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Marlowe compressed 23 years of history into the play, altering the timeline of events for dramatic effect whilst remaining generally faithful to historical events.