Context (OCR A-Level English Literature): Revision Notes

Context

Understanding the context of The Duchess of Malfi is essential for your A-Level study. Context should inform your reading of the text, but never dominate it. When discussing context in your essays, always consider how it influences the play's themes and meanings. For OCR's Assessment Objective 3 (AO3), you need to demonstrate understanding of the significance and influence of the contexts in which the play was written and received.

Literary context

The literary context of a play encompasses its form, genre, and how it responds to or challenges the conventions of its time. The Duchess of Malfi is best understood as a Jacobean revenge tragedy, and examining both of these categories reveals much about Webster's artistic choices and the play's impact on audiences.

Jacobean drama

Jacobean drama refers to the body of plays written and performed during King James I's reign in England, from 1603 to 1625. The Duchess of Malfi was first performed in 1613 by the King's Men, the prestigious theatre company to which Shakespeare belonged. This historical positioning is significant because Jacobean drama emerged from a period of political and religious division in Britain, and these tensions are reflected throughout the play.

Unlike Elizabethan drama, which often favoured lighter, comic material, Jacobean plays are characteristically cynical and explore darker themes. Webster's play exemplifies this shift through its presentation of corrupt political and religious institutions. The Cardinal and Duke Ferdinand embody this cynicism, as both hold positions of power yet act with shocking violence and immorality. This reflects the broader Jacobean preoccupation with exposing the gap between public respectability and private corruption.

The themes central to Jacobean drama pervade The Duchess of Malfi. Death, revenge and betrayal structure the entire plot, with the Duchess's secret marriage leading to betrayals by those she trusts and ultimately to her murder. These dark themes resonated with Jacobean audiences who lived through political instability and religious persecution. The play's ending, where all major characters die and social order is inverted, reflects the period's anxiety about institutional collapse.

Jacobean drama also engaged in political satire, using dark humour to expose failings in institutions and politics. The growing Cavalier movement, which advocated pleasure and joy, stood in direct opposition to strict Puritanism, creating cultural tension that dramatists explored. Webster questions social order throughout the play, most notably in the resolution where the nobility is killed and the Duchess's heir is left in the care of Delio, a minor character. His closing words about integrity and honesty leading to good reputation suggest a new social order based on virtue rather than birth.

The complexity of human nature is another hallmark of Jacobean drama, with characters exploring motivations, desires and fears that lead to violence. The Duchess's sexuality becomes the catalyst for the play's conflict and her murder, whilst characters face shame and punishment for deviating from social norms. Webster creates morally ambiguous figures rather than clear heroes and villains.

Supernatural elements frequently appear in Jacobean plays, often as ghosts or illusions stemming from guilty consciences. In The Duchess of Malfi, Ferdinand's madness manifests through visions of horses, brought about by his overwhelming guilt over murdering his sister. These supernatural touches heightened the psychological intensity that made Jacobean drama so compelling to contemporary audiences.

Revenge tragedy

The revenge tragedy genre predates the Jacobean period, originating in the works of Roman philosopher Seneca (4BC–AD65), who wrote plays in which revenge was often inflicted by supernatural forces. The genre was revitalised by Elizabethan playwrights like Shakespeare, whose Hamlet and Macbeth incorporated fate, determinism, ghosts and illusions to raise questions about accountability and the supernatural.

The widespread belief in witchcraft during Jacobean England permeates the play, particularly in the insulting references to witchcraft used by male characters like Bosola and Ferdinand. These references reveal contemporary anxieties about the supernatural and divine punishment. Ghosts and hallucinations in revenge tragedies typically signal a guilty conscience, which Webster uses effectively through Ferdinand's 'illness', a disease causing strange visions.

The conventional plotline of revenge tragedy follows a protagonist seeking vengeance for a perceived injustice, then explores whether they achieve redemption or punishment. The play consistently deals with mercy and forgiveness, most poignantly in the Duchess's final word: "mercy".

Revenge tragedies became particularly popular in Jacobean England following the Gunpowder Plot of 1605. This failed Catholic conspiracy to bomb Parliament and assassinate King James I reflected deep dissatisfaction with oppressive governmental and religious structures. Plays exploring revenge gave audiences a way to process these anxieties about political instability and betrayal. In The Duchess of Malfi, Bosola represents a bitter individual betrayed by his leaders, embodying the resentment many felt toward those in power.

The genre's conventions include clear villains who commit murder, though these villains are often themselves victims of oppressive social systems. Webster adds complexity by making the Cardinal and Ferdinand both villains and products of a corrupt system that values family honour above individual happiness. He had explored similar themes in The White Devil (1612), another revenge tragedy dealing with murder and corruption involving a Cardinal who becomes Pope.

Shocking and brutal violence is central to revenge tragedy's popularity. Webster depicts the strangulation of the Duchess and her maid Cariola on stage, alongside Julia's murder through kissing a poisoned Bible. The final act descends into chaotic violence as Antonio, Bosola, the Cardinal and Ferdinand stab each other in acts of crazed revenge. Murder is often accompanied by the presence of corpses, with Bosola carrying the Duchess's body to the women and the Cardinal carrying Julia's body to his room. These visual elements created visceral theatrical experiences that thrilled contemporary audiences whilst exploring profound questions about justice, mercy and human nature.

Social context

The social context of a literary work encompasses the social and political environment in which it was written and received. For The Duchess of Malfi, two key aspects of social context illuminate the play's themes and concerns: religious conflict during the Jacobean era and the influence of Machiavellian philosophy on political thought.

Religious conflict in the Jacobean era

Webster based his play on a real Italian Duchess who was murdered by her brothers, one of whom was a cardinal, because of her relationship with a steward. This true story allowed Webster to explore contemporary debates about corruption within religious institutions, particularly the Catholic Church, which had a reputation in Protestant England for violence and hypocrisy.

The stereotype of Italian corruption stemmed from the complex politics of Italian nobility, particularly powerful families who controlled much of Italy and exchanged religious positions for money or favours. Webster uses this setting ironically in the play's exposition, when Antonio Bologna returns from France and describes the French court, comparing it negatively to the court of Malfi. This irony would not have been lost on audiences who understood Italy's reputation.

The characterisation of the Cardinal drives home Webster's critique of religious corruption. He hides behind his religious title whilst committing murder, and his violence exemplifies the abuse of power that concerned many Jacobeans.

By the time the play premiered, England had endured nearly a century of religious turmoil, primarily conflict between Protestantism and Catholicism. Although some continued loyalty to the Catholic Church existed, much of England had converted to Protestantism after years of violent religious conflict. Webster's play challenges the violence perpetrated by religious institutions regardless of denomination, suggesting that power corrupts across religious boundaries.

Philosophical influence

Niccolò Machiavelli's political philosophy, articulated most famously in The Prince (published 1532), spread from Italy across Europe and profoundly influenced political thought during the Jacobean period. Machiavelli's teachings advocate principles of government in which political ambition takes precedence over morality. His philosophy suggests that the end justifies the means, legitimising immoral actions if they achieve desired political outcomes.

This Machiavellian worldview appears throughout The Duchess of Malfi. The Cardinal is believed to have bribed his way into his religious position, whilst Ferdinand pursues the full family inheritance and does everything possible to prevent the Duchess from remarrying. Machiavelli endorsed using deceit to maintain authority and control, which Ferdinand exemplifies by employing Bosola as a spy to watch the Duchess. Bosola helps Ferdinand achieve his cruel ambitions, demonstrating how Machiavellian philosophy corrupts relationships and breeds treachery.

Societal uncertainty about power structures grew during this period as a result of Machiavellian influence, and Webster reflects this in his portrayal of a dissatisfied public who gossip about their leaders. Antonio refers immediately to good leadership based on integrity, positioning it as an alternative to Machiavellian manipulation. This suggests Webster's awareness of competing political philosophies and his interest in exploring which approach creates more stable societies.

Bosola is presented as a malcontent - depressed and cynical, which manifests in his deceitful, Machiavellian nature. However, Webster adds complexity by showing that Bosola understands the difference between good and evil but chooses sin regardless because he believes virtue will not be rewarded. Even Antonio, promised reward for his virtue, is killed. This portrayal emphasizes the play's pessimistic view of moral outcomes in a corrupt world.

Historical context

Understanding the historical context in which The Duchess of Malfi was written enriches our appreciation of its themes, though historical references should always be linked carefully to the play's content and the exam question focus.

John Webster was an esteemed dramatist whose plays were performed by the King's Men, Shakespeare's theatre company, and presented for King James I, who was an passionate theatre enthusiast. This royal patronage was significant because it gave Webster's work legitimacy whilst also allowing him to present potentially subversive ideas about power and corruption to powerful audiences.

Webster's play functions as a criticism of corrupt political institutions both in England and across Europe, particularly Italy. The court of King James I had a reputation for loose morals, and three of the play's major characters (the Cardinal, Duke Ferdinand and Bosola) demonstrate corruption and act with impunity. The Cardinal betrays Bosola and murders his mistress Julia, whilst Duke Ferdinand refuses to pay Bosola for his services and demands he commit murder at least three times. These parallels to contemporary English court politics would have resonated with audiences who witnessed similar abuses of power.

The Gunpowder Plot's impact on English drama cannot be overstated. Uncertainty about political leadership was reflected in revenge tragedies and plays featuring conspiratorial plots. The Duchess of Malfi depicts multiple conspiracies: Duke Ferdinand's scheme to spy on the Duchess, the Cardinal's plot to banish the Duchess and her husband, and Bosola's role as a spy throughout the play. These layers of conspiracy mirror the paranoia and distrust that characterised Jacobean politics.

Webster uses these historical anxieties to explore timeless questions about power, loyalty, betrayal and justice. By setting his play in Italy rather than England, he could critique political systems more freely whilst still ensuring audiences recognised parallels to their own experiences. The play's relevance extends beyond its immediate historical moment precisely because it addresses fundamental problems in how power operates and how institutions corrupt individuals.