Writer's Techniques (OCR A-Level English Literature): Revision Notes
Writer's Techniques
Understanding literary form in your exam
When studying Othello, understanding literary form is essential for achieving high marks in Assessment Objective 2 (AO2). This objective requires you to examine how Shakespeare creates meaning through his writing choices, rather than simply describing what happens in the plot.
Literary form encompasses several elements that work together to shape the play's impact:
- Language analysis and techniques - How Shakespeare uses words, imagery and poetic devices
- Type of writing - Drama, specifically a five-act tragedy
- Structure - How the play is organised and how scenes connect
- Genre - The different literary traditions Shakespeare draws upon
The key question to ask yourself is not just 'what happens?' but 'how and why does Shakespeare present it this way?' For instance, rather than stating that Othello kills Desdemona, consider how Shakespeare stages this moment, what language choices he makes, and what effect these decisions create for the audience.
Throughout your essay, integrate analysis of these techniques consistently. Focus on the methods Shakespeare employs and their effects, demonstrating your understanding of how dramatic meaning is constructed.
Genre conventions in Othello
Tragedy
Shakespeare's Othello follows the conventions of Ancient Greek tragedy, a genre that experienced a revival during the Renaissance period. The play adheres to the classic tragic structure where a distinguished and admirable protagonist experiences a devastating reversal of fortune.
Key features of tragedy in Othello:
The tragic structure centres on a noble hero who possesses a fatal character flaw. This flaw, known as hamartia, becomes the catalyst for his destruction. In Othello's case, his hamartia is jealousy, which Iago exploits to devastating effect. This weakness allows him to be manipulated into doubting Desdemona's faithfulness, ultimately leading him to murder his innocent wife and take his own life.
At the play's conclusion, the tragic hero experiences anagnorisis - a moment of recognition where he comprehends the full extent of his errors and misjudgements. This realisation is followed by catharsis, an emotional purging where the protagonist acknowledges that his downfall resulted from his own choices and actions. This moment arrives too late for redemption, intensifying the tragedy. The audience also experiences catharsis, feeling a powerful emotional release as they witness the hero's fate unfold.
Dramatic irony and inevitability:
Shakespeare's use of tragedy creates a sense of predetermined doom from the opening scenes. As audience members, we recognise Othello as the tragic protagonist and understand that his fate is sealed. This awareness allows Shakespeare to employ dramatic irony effectively - we possess knowledge that the characters lack.
Worked Example: Dramatic Irony with Desdemona
Consider Desdemona's innocent advocacy for Cassio. Each time she pleads his case to Othello, we recognise that she is unwittingly strengthening her husband's suspicions and sealing her own tragic fate.
The ironic effect:
- Desdemona intends to help Cassio and demonstrate wifely loyalty
- We (the audience) know Iago has manipulated Othello to see this as evidence of an affair
- Each plea makes the situation worse, not better
- This foreknowledge intensifies our emotional response as we watch the tragedy unfold
This demonstrates how dramatic irony allows us to watch Othello make catastrophic decisions whilst being deceived by Iago's manipulation.
Travel writing
Shakespeare incorporates elements from the popular Renaissance genre of travel writing. During this period, European explorers ventured to previously unknown territories, including the 'New World' of America, and documented their experiences. These accounts often embellished reality, exoticising foreign peoples and landscapes whilst blurring the boundaries between fact and fantasy. By the late sixteenth century, when Shakespeare was writing, this genre was firmly established. A famous example is The Travels of Sir John Mandeville, published over two centuries before Othello.
Travel writing in Othello's speeches:
Shakespeare most explicitly employs this genre in Othello's speech about his background (Act I, Scene III). Travel writing traditionally presented itself as first-person eyewitness testimony whilst actually drawing on previous texts and mixing mythical elements with factual observations. Although Othello describes his own history, Shakespeare's use of travel writing conventions encourages us to question the truthfulness of his account.
Othello's speech includes fantastical and extraordinary encounters: 'Cannibals' and 'Anthropophagi', 'most disastrous chances, / Of moving accidents by flood and field / Of hair-breadth scapes i' the imminent deadly breach'. These wondrous descriptions echo the exaggerated style typical of travel narratives.
Effect on characterisation:
By incorporating this genre, Shakespeare intensifies the mystery and exoticism surrounding Othello's character. Even after this speech, Othello remains enigmatic - we learn little about his true origins because the story's authenticity is questionable. Travel writing was fundamentally about exoticising the unfamiliar, and this speech therefore further exoticises Othello himself. Additionally, we sense that this narrative is a performance - a tale he has recounted many times, delivered in a fantastical manner to captivate his white Venetian listeners.
Morality play
Elements of the morality play genre also appear in Othello. This medieval dramatic form taught Christian moral lessons through storytelling. Traditional morality plays depicted a sinner's journey from damnation through repentance to redemption, with the protagonist tempted by personified forces of Good and Evil, such as angels and demons.
Adaptation of morality play conventions:
Whilst Othello differs from traditional morality plays by ending in tragic death rather than redemption, Shakespeare nonetheless draws on this genre's conventions. Several characters can be interpreted as symbolic representations of moral forces.
Desdemona embodies Goodness - she is associated with purity and whiteness, and when she pleads for Cassio's forgiveness, she encourages Othello to demonstrate Christian mercy and compassion. Conversely, Iago represents Evil throughout the play. He orchestrates Cassio's downfall and manipulates Othello, drawing out his jealousy and violent impulses.
Internal moral conflict:
In Act III, Scene III, when Othello becomes convinced of Desdemona's infidelity, we can view the scene as externalising the internal battle occurring in Othello's mind. Iago represents the forces of Evil competing for Othello's soul, whilst Othello's conscience represents the forces of Good attempting to keep him faithful to his wife. Ultimately, Othello succumbs to evil's temptation, with no possibility of repentance.
Whilst these forces aren't direct representatives of God or the Devil as in medieval morality plays, Shakespeare's use of Desdemona, Othello and Iago clearly externalises the moral deliberation taking place within Othello's consciousness - the choice between remaining faithful to Desdemona (goodness) and surrendering to jealous rage (sin and evil).
Structural techniques
Five-act structure
Othello follows the conventional five-act structure typical of tragedy. Across these five acts, we trace the tragic hero's trajectory: his rise to prominence, a reversal of fortune (typically occurring in Act III), his fall throughout Acts IV and V, and his death at the play's conclusion.
Dramatic parallels and repetition
Shakespeare employs key repetitions throughout the play that create dramatic parallels, highlighting how rapidly relationships and characters deteriorate:
Structural parallels:
- In Act I, Othello stands trial and defends both himself and his marriage before the Venetian senators. By Act IV, the roles have reversed - Othello becomes the judge who interrogates and cross-examines his wife
- During Act II, Othello and Desdemona retire to consummate their marriage. The next time we see Desdemona in bed, she lies in the same wedding sheets, but now Othello murders her
- The word 'honest' appears 52 times throughout the play. Othello most frequently uses it as an epithet for Iago: 'honest Iago'. Iago also applies it to himself, stating 'honest as I am' (Act II, Scene I). Tragic dramatic irony emerges when Othello repeatedly calls Iago honest, as he remains utterly convinced of his honesty whilst the audience recognises the deception
Narrowing of setting
The play's setting progressively narrows, creating an increasingly claustrophobic atmosphere. The action begins in Venice, then relocates to Cyprus. However, the external plot concerning the Venetian-Ottoman War is abandoned, and the play's focus ultimately contracts to a single bedroom.
As Othello becomes increasingly fixated on his relationship and Desdemona's behaviour, all external concerns fade into insignificance. The setting becomes claustrophobic for both the audience and the characters, intensifying the dramatic tension.
Absence of subplot
Many of Shakespeare's plays feature a subplot that broadens the scope and provides relief from the main plot's intensity - for instance, Edgar and Edmund's story in King Lear. However, Othello contains no subplot. The action remains intensely concentrated on Iago's manipulations and Othello's responses to them. This singular focus heightens the sense of claustrophobia, as no external forces or alternative storylines alleviate the dramatic tension and intensity.
Character prominence and stage time
Structure can also be examined through how much characters speak and appear on stage. If one character dominates a scene, it conveys an impression of their power and importance.
Iago's structural dominance:
Iago is structurally dominant throughout Othello. Of all the characters, he has the most stage time. Whilst both Othello and Iago deliver soliloquies, Iago notably delivers several more. This structural prominence creates an impression of his power - his extensive stage time corresponds to his significance and authority within the plot.
Exam tip: The soliloquy is a dramatic convention where a character addresses the audience directly, used in Shakespeare's plays to externalise a character's motives and thoughts. Both Othello and Iago deliver soliloquies, offering insight into the minds of both victim and perpetrator. This adds dramatic intensity, as we can observe how Othello reacts to Iago's manipulations. Furthermore, revealing Iago's plans to the audience creates dramatic irony and heightens our impression of the play's tragedy, as we watch the inevitable events unfold.
Language and characterisation
The centrality of language
Language holds particular significance in Othello because Iago's manipulation of words and deployment of falsehoods directly cause Othello's downfall. Othello interprets Iago's words too literally and falls victim to his deception.
Shakespeare constructs characters through their language, so examining how characters speak and what linguistic choices they make reveals crucial aspects of their identity and state of mind.
Othello's blank verse
Much of Othello's speech in the play's first half consists of blank verse - unrhymed poetry written in iambic pentameter. Each line contains 10 syllables (5 sets of 2), with the stress pattern following a 'dee-DUM dee-DUM' rhythm.
Worked Example: Analysing Blank Verse
Consider this speech from Act I, Scene III:
'And little of this great world can I speak, More than pertains to feats of broil and battle, And therefore little shall I grace my cause This measured'
Counting the syllables:
- 'And lit-tle of this great world can I speak' = 10 syllables
- 'More than per-tains to feats of broil and bat-tle' = 10 syllables
- 'And there-fore lit-tle shall I grace my cause' = 10 syllables
Each line comprises exactly 10 syllables. Othello's use of this measured, poetical form creates an impression of a character who is stately and dignified. His speech is elevated and authoritative, as each line is evenly measured and the 'dee-DUM' stress pattern steadies the pace. This impressive and powerful speech befits a tragic hero at the play's opening - he commands respect and dominance.
Language breakdown
The breakdown of poetic blank verse as the play progresses mirrors Othello's own mental deterioration. When he believes his wife has betrayed him, his sense of self fractures, and consequently his language becomes fragmented:
'--Handkerchief--confessions--handkerchief!--To confess, and be hanged for his labour;--first, to be hanged, and then to confess.--I tremble at it.' (Act IV, Scene I)
Othello no longer appears stately and dignified. Instead, he breaks down and struggles to think coherently. This mental collapse is represented through the disintegration of his language. Notice how the structured blank verse has completely disappeared, replaced by fragmented, broken speech patterns.
Communication breakdown
The relationship between Desdemona and Othello deteriorates when they can no longer trust or comprehend each other's language. Desdemona asks her husband: 'what doth your speech import? / I understand a fury in your words. / But not the words' (Act IV, Scene II). This breakdown of understanding and trust between them leads directly to Desdemona's death.
Symbolic death:
Desdemona is smothered - Othello covers her mouth and nose, preventing her from speaking. This method of death symbolises how she is silenced because her husband no longer believes the words she speaks. The physical act of smothering represents the ultimate breakdown of linguistic trust and communication.
Iago's linguistic manipulation
Language is also crucial to Iago's characterisation. He frequently shifts between prose and verse, easily adapting his linguistic style to suit different audiences and purposes. We never fully understand Iago because his language constantly shifts throughout the play. He manipulates his language and speaking style with the same ease that he manipulates multiple characters. He emerges as a slippery and untrustworthy figure, and Shakespeare portrays this through his speech patterns.
Contrasting linguistic styles:
His prosaic language with Roderigo is blunt and persuasive: 'If thou dost, I shall never love thee after. Why, thou silly gentleman!' (Act I, Scene III). His poetic language with Othello is more elevated: 'Though I perchance am vicious in my guess, / As, I confess, it is my nature's plague...' (Act III, Scene III).
Manipulation through silence:
Iago is also manipulative in his use of silence and reluctance to speak. By feigning reluctance to reveal the truth, he captures Othello's interest and curiosity, for example stating 'You cannot [...] Nor shall not' know his thoughts (Act III, Scene III). This calculated reticence becomes another tool of manipulation.
Remember!
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Literary form focuses on HOW, not WHAT - Analyse Shakespeare's methods and their effects rather than simply describing plot events. Always ask: how does Shakespeare create this meaning and what is its impact?
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Genre blending creates complexity - Othello draws on Ancient Greek tragedy (with hamartia, anagnorisis and catharsis), travel writing (creating exoticism and mystery), and morality play conventions (externalising moral conflict). Understanding these genres helps explain the play's dramatic impact.
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Structure intensifies tragedy - The five-act structure traces Othello's rise and fall. Repetition and dramatic parallels highlight deterioration. The narrowing setting from Venice to a single bedroom creates claustrophobia. The absence of subplot maintains intense focus on the tragic events.
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Language reveals character and deterioration - Othello's dignified blank verse breaks down into fragmented speech, mirroring his mental collapse. Iago manipulates through shifting between prose and verse, adapting his style to different audiences. The breakdown of linguistic understanding between Othello and Desdemona leads to her death.
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Dramatic techniques enhance audience experience - Dramatic irony (the audience knows what characters don't), soliloquies (revealing inner thoughts), and structural prominence (particularly Iago's dominance) all work together to create a powerful tragic effect and emotional catharsis for the audience.