The First World War ends (AQA GCSE History): Revision Notes
The First World War ends
What was the armistice?
An armistice is an agreement between warring parties to stop fighting while they negotiate peace terms. Unlike a peace treaty, an armistice is typically temporary and focused on ending the immediate violence.
The armistice was a crucial agreement that brought an end to the fighting in the First World War. This historic document was signed between France, Britain and Germany on 11 November 1918, finally ending four devastating years of warfare that had consumed Europe and beyond.
Why the First World War had to end
By 1918, the First World War had stretched on far longer than anyone on either side had originally expected when fighting began in 1914. The conflict had created unprecedented destruction and human suffering across Europe.
The casualty figures were staggering - approximately eight million soldiers had been killed in the fighting, while another eight million civilians had also lost their lives. This meant that roughly 16 million people had died as a direct result of the war.
The war had not only claimed millions of lives but had also destroyed vital infrastructure including factories, farms and railway systems that were essential for keeping countries functioning.
Germany's military situation had become increasingly desperate throughout 1918. Although German forces had achieved some success against Russia, defeating them in March 1917, this victory proved to be short-lived. The situation changed dramatically when the United States entered the war in April 1917, bringing fresh troops and resources to support Britain and France. The Allies began making several important advances on the Western Front, putting increasing pressure on German forces.
Why Germany agreed to the armistice
Several critical factors forced Germany to accept the armistice terms, each contributing to the country's inability to continue fighting effectively.
The Spring Offensive's Failure
The failure of Germany's Spring Offensive (launched from March to July 1918) proved to be a turning point. This had been Germany's last major attempt to achieve victory on the Western Front, but it failed to break through Allied lines and defeat the enemy forces. Instead, the offensive left German forces even more weakened and short of both manpower and essential supplies needed to continue the war effort.
American involvement was becoming increasingly decisive by late 1918. The USA was sending more troops and supplies to Europe in growing numbers, and German military leaders recognised that it was only a matter of time before the German army would be completely overwhelmed by this fresh influx of Allied resources and personnel.
The Kiel Naval Mutiny
Serious unrest was also developing within Germany itself. On 3 November 1918, sailors in the German port of Kiel mutinied and refused to engage in battle against British naval forces. This act of rebellion quickly spread, inspiring similar acts of defiance across the German military and civilian population.
In the days following the naval mutiny, thousands of civilians took to the streets in Germany's major cities. These protesters were demanding an end to the war, expressing their anger at the enormous burdens and suffering that the conflict had brought to ordinary German families. Many German soldiers had been killed, and civilians had endured severe hardships including food shortages and economic difficulties.
To try to address these growing demonstrations and restore order, the German chancellor Prince Maximilian of Baden successfully persuaded Kaiser Wilhelm II to step down and flee to Holland. This dramatic political change demonstrated just how desperate Germany's situation had become.
The terms of the armistice
The armistice contained 34 separate terms that Germany was required to accept. These conditions were designed to ensure that Germany could not resume fighting and to establish the groundwork for future peace negotiations.
The most immediate requirements involved territorial evacuations. German troops were ordered to leave France, Belgium, Luxembourg and Alsace-Lorraine (which Germany had controlled since 1870) within 14 days. Additionally, all German forces were required to withdraw from territory on the west side of the Rhine river, effectively removing German military presence from these strategically important areas.
Scale of German Military Surrender
Germany was forced to surrender vast amounts of military equipment:
- All submarines
- 5,000 cannons
- 25,000 machine guns
- 1,700 planes
- 5,000 locomotive engines
- 150,000 railcars
These enormous quantities demonstrated the scale of Germany's war effort and ensured the country would be unable to quickly rebuild its fighting capacity.
The armistice also addressed the treatment of prisoners of war. All French, British and Italian prisoners held by Germany were to be released immediately, while German prisoners would only be released after a formal peace treaty had been negotiated and signed. This arrangement gave the Allies additional leverage in future peace negotiations.
Perhaps most significantly for the future, the armistice established that Germany would be blamed for the war and would have to pay reparations (financial compensation) for all the damage that had been caused during the conflict. This principle of German war guilt would become a central and controversial element of the eventual peace settlement.
Reactions to the armistice
The signing of the armistice produced dramatically different reactions on opposite sides of the conflict, reflecting the very different experiences and expectations of the warring nations.
Britain, France and the USA celebrated the end of fighting with great enthusiasm and relief. After four years of devastating warfare, people in these countries were overjoyed that the killing had finally stopped and that their soldiers would be coming home. The Allied nations had achieved victory and could look forwards to peace negotiations where they would be able to shape the post-war world according to their interests and values.
However, the situation in Germany was far more complex and troubling. The country was facing the possibility of civil war as it remained deeply divided and in a desperate state. Many ordinary Germans were angry about how the war had ended, feeling that their enormous sacrifices had been for nothing.
Crucially, many German soldiers believed that the armistice was only temporary and that fighting would resume in the near future. This belief would have important consequences for Germany's political development, as many Germans never fully accepted that they had been militarily defeated.
The armistice also established that a peace treaty would be drawn up in Paris in 1919. This future conference would be dominated by the main Allied powers (Britain, France and the USA), and the leaders of these different countries already held very different ideas about what should happen next. These disagreements would shape the complex and controversial peace settlement that followed.
Timeline of key events
Key Events Leading to the Armistice
- March 1917: Germany defeats Russia
- April 1917: USA joins the war supporting the Allies
- March-July 1918: Germany's Spring Offensive fails
- 3 November 1918: German sailors mutiny at Kiel
- November 1918: Civilian protests spread across German cities
- November 1918: Kaiser Wilhelm II abdicates and flees to Holland
- 11 November 1918: Armistice signed, ending the fighting
- 1919: Peace conference scheduled to begin in Paris
Key Points to Remember:
-
The armistice was signed on 11 November 1918 between Germany and the Allied powers, ending four years of devastating warfare that had killed approximately 16 million people.
-
Germany agreed to the armistice because of multiple pressures: the failure of the Spring Offensive, increasing American involvement, naval mutiny at Kiel, and widespread civilian protests demanding an end to the war.
-
The armistice contained 34 terms requiring Germany to evacuate occupied territories, surrender massive amounts of military equipment, and accept responsibility for paying reparations for war damage.
-
While the Allied nations celebrated victory, Germany remained divided and unstable, with many Germans believing the armistice was only temporary and refusing to accept military defeat.
-
The armistice set the stage for the 1919 Paris Peace Conference, where the Allied powers would negotiate a formal peace treaty despite having very different ideas about how to shape the post-war world.