Learning and Improving Skill and Technique (Leaving Cert Physical Education): Revision Notes

Skill Acquisition

Learning: a permanent change in behaviour that occurs because of practice.

The Fitts and Posner Stages of Motor Skill Learning

1. Cognitive Stage
2. Associative Stage
3. Autonomous Stage

Cognitive Stage

Learners focus on understanding the basics of the skill and the required movements. They rely heavily on verbal and visual instructions, often making errors as they attempt to grasp the fundamentals.

Factors aiding progress:

• Positive extrinsic feedback.
• Self-discovery.
• Trial and error. Example: A beginner learning how to strike a ball.

Associative Stage

Learners start refining their skills through practice. They make fewer mistakes and begin to perform the skill more smoothly and consistently, integrating feedback to improve their performance. Performances are becoming more consistent as motor memories are being formed.

Factors aiding progress:

• Intrinsic and extrinsic feedback.
• Modelling.
• Video feedback. Example: A rugby player improving their kicking technique.

Autonomous Stage

The skill becomes automatic and highly consistent. Performers can execute the skill with little conscious thought, allowing them to focus on more advanced strategies and adjustments during performance.

Factors aiding progress:

• Intrinsic feedback.
• Negative feedback.
• Video analysis. Example: A gymnast performing complex routines.

Feedback

1. Intrinsic feedback
2. Extrinsic feedback
3. Positive feedback
4. Negative feedback
5. Continuous feedback

Intrinsic Feedback

Intrinsic feedback: the internal information received as a performer executes a skill.

This type of feedback comes from within the performer, involving the sensations and feelings experienced during movement. It helps athletes understand how their body is positioned and moving, allowing them to make adjustments based on the physical feedback they receive from their muscles and joints.

Example*:* When balancing on one leg, a gymnast adjusts their body position to maintain balance.

Extrinsic Feedback

Extrinsic feedback: provided by external sources during or after a performance.

External sources include coaches, teammates, or video analysis. It offers an outside perspective on the performer's actions, highlighting areas for improvement and reinforcing correct techniques.

Types of extrinsic feedback

Knowledge of Results:

• Outcome-focused feedback that informs the performer about the success of their actions in achieving the desired result.
• Important for understanding whether the performance met the objective. Knowledge of Performance:
• Provides information about the quality and technique of the performance itself, regardless of the outcome.
• Helps performers understand what they did well and what needs improvement in their execution.

Positive Feedback

Involves reinforcing good performance by highlighting what the athlete did well. This type of feedback boosts confidence, encourages repetition of successful actions, and enhances motivation.

Negative Feedback

Focuses on pointing out errors and areas that need improvement. While it highlights mistakes, the goal is constructive criticism to help the performer understand what went wrong and how to correct it.

Example: A coach pointing out a swimmer's incorrect hand position during a stroke so that it can be corrected.

Continuous Feedback

Continuous feedback is provided in real-time as the performer is executing the skill. This type of feedback allows for immediate adjustments and corrections, helping to fine-tune performance on the spot.

Example: a runner using their heart rate monitor to help them run at their desired intensity.

Terminal Feedback

Terminal feedback is experienced by the performer once the move has been completed. It offers a summary of the performance, allowing the performer to reflect on their actions and plan for future improvements.

Example: A coach discussing the overall performance with a soccer player after a match.

Types of Practice

Different practice methods suit various levels of player experience. Coaches must consider the player's level, the complexity of the skill, and the desired outcome when selecting the appropriate practice type.

Types of practice include:

1. Fixed practice
2. Variable practice
3. Massed practice
4. Distributed practice
5. Mental practice

Fixed Practice

Involves repeating the same skill in a stable and unchanging environment. It is ideal for skills that require consistent performance and helps build muscle memory through repetition.

Example: Golf swings at a driving range.

Variable Practice

Executing a skill in different conditions and environments. This method helps athletes adapt to varying situations and enhances their ability to perform under diverse circumstances.

Massed Practice

Continuous practice sessions with little to no rest intervals. This method is useful for conditioning and stamina but can lead to fatigue if overused.

Example: Badminton drop shots.

Distributed Practice

Practice sessions with rest and recovery periods in between. This method prevents fatigue, allows for reflexion and consolidation of skills, and is effective for learning new and complex skills.

Example: Swimming with rest intervals.

Mental Practice

Visualising the performance of a skill without physical execution. This method helps reinforce the neural pathways associated with the skill, enhancing mental preparation and focus.

Example: A footballer visualising the scoring of a goal.

Methods of Practice

---

1. Whole practice
2. Part practice
3. Whole-part-whole practice

1. Whole Practice

Whole practice involves practising the entire skill from start to finish, without being broken down.

• Useful for skills that are best learned as a complete sequence.
• Useful for simple skills where repetition is important for motor programming.
• Example: golf swing.

2. Part Practice

Part practice involves breaking the skill into smaller components and practising each part separately, with the aim of perfecting it.

• Useful for complex skills that can be overwhelming if practised as a whole initially.
• It allows performers to focus on mastering each part before integrating them into the full skill.
• Example: Practising the phases of a triple jump.

3. Whole-Part-Whole Practice

Whole-part-whole practice combines elements of both whole and part practice. Performers start by practising the entire skill, then focus on refining specific parts, and finally combine the parts into the whole skill.

• Ensures that the performer understands the overall skill while also improving individual components.
• Example: Practising a tennis serve as a complete action, then isolating the toss and swing before putting it all together again.

Designing Skill Practice Schedules

Principle of Practice	Explanation	Examples
Goal-orientated	• The training schedule should be dictated by short- and long-term goals. • Goal-setting should be used to choose goals for the training schedule. • The schedule should be measurable and recorded.	The coach decides that the performers are going to improve shooting on their weak side.
Appropriate	• The type of training and practice selected should be appropriate and specific to the activity and the performer's stage of learning.	The coach selects distributed type of practice and uses part-practice method for a new skill and cognitive learners.
Progressive	• Gradually increasing the difficulty of drills and exercises. • Ensures that performers are continually challenged and that their skills develop progressively over time. • Helps maintain motivation and prevents plateaus.	As the performers improve, the coach makes the practice more difficult or demanding, e.g. increase weight for deadlifts.
Varied	• Incorporates different methods and drills to keep training engaging and challenging. • Prevents monotony, stimulates cognitive engagement, and enhances the performer's adaptability. • Crucial for versatile athletes.	The coach varies the drills and practice, and varies the skills between training sessions.
Adaptable	• Schedules need to be adaptable, dependent on the progress of performers and the training circumstances. • They need to be inclusive of different skill levels within the training group.	The coach needs to ensure they can change from the plan if they need to, based on ability, weather, equipment available, etc.
Timely	• Schedules sessions at appropriate times to maximise effectiveness and minimise fatigue. • Consider the athlete's workload, recovery needs, and optimal performance times. • Important for balancing intensity and recovery.
Achievable	• Realistic and attainable goals for performers. • Helps maintain motivation and provides a sense of accomplishment as athletes reach their targets.

Conditioned Games

• These games create a controlled environment where athletes can develop their abilities under game-like conditions.
• They also add an element of fun and competition, keeping training sessions engaging and motivating for athletes.
• Example: Five-on-five soccer with specific rules to focus on passing accuracy.