Key Concepts (Leaving Cert Politics and Society): Revision Notes
Key Concepts
The Leaving Certificate Politics and Society course explores political and social structures to develop critical thinking, active citizenship, and understanding of human rights. The course consists of four main strands that examine power, citizenship, rights, and globalisation from local to international levels.
The course is structured around four interconnected strands that progress from local (school-level) understanding to global perspectives, helping students develop both theoretical knowledge and practical skills for active citizenship.
Strand 1: Power and decision-making
Topic 1: Power and decision-making in school
Power structures in educational settings form the foundation for understanding broader political concepts. Schools operate as microcosms of society where different forms of authority and decision-making processes can be observed and analysed.
Key concepts you need to know:
- Authority: The legitimate power that individuals or groups possess and use over others. Max Weber identified this as a fundamental concept in understanding how power operates in organised settings.
- Democracy: A system of government where power belongs to the people, exercised either directly or through freely elected representatives. Jean-Jacques Rousseau argued that true democracy requires the active participation of citizens in decision-making.
- Participation: The involvement of individuals in decision-making processes. John Locke emphasised that meaningful participation is essential for legitimate governance.
- Leadership: The ability to guide, direct, or influence people. Weber distinguished between different types of leadership based on the source of their authority.
- Power dynamics: The ways power is distributed and exercised within groups. Karl Marx analysed how power relations shape social structures and interactions.
The focus here examines how power operates within school environments, including the roles of students, teachers, and administrators in decision-making. Case studies of student-led initiatives and the impact of student councils on school policies demonstrate practical applications of democratic principles.
Understanding power dynamics in familiar settings like schools provides the essential foundation for analysing more complex political systems. The same principles of authority, legitimacy, and participation operate at all levels of society.
Topic 2: Power and decision-making at national and European levels
Government structures extend the concepts learned at school level to examine formal political institutions and processes that govern modern democratic states.
Key concepts you need to know:
- Government: The system or group of people governing an organised community, typically a state. Locke viewed government as deriving its legitimacy from the consent of the governed.
- Political systems: The set of formal legal institutions that constitute a government or state. Weber analysed how different political systems organise and exercise power.
- The EU: A political and economic union of 27 European countries located primarily in Europe. This represents a unique form of supranational governance that challenges traditional notions of state sovereignty.
- Political accountability: The responsibility of government officials to act in society's best interests or face consequences. This concept, rooted in Locke's political theory, ensures that power is exercised responsibly.
The focus examines government structures, the role of political parties, and the functioning of the European Union. Analysis of law-making processes and the influence of lobbying and interest groups on policy-making provides practical insights into democratic governance.
The European Union represents a unique experiment in supranational governance, where member states voluntarily pool sovereignty in certain areas while maintaining national identity and autonomy in others.
Strand 2: Active citizenship
Topic 3: Effectively contributing to communities
Community engagement represents the practical application of democratic principles through active participation in local and civil society organisations.
Key concepts you need to know:
- Citizenship: The status of being a citizen, with associated rights and responsibilities. Locke argued that citizenship involves both privileges and duties within a political community.
- Community: A group of people living in the same place or sharing particular characteristics. Émile Durkheim studied how communities create social bonds and shared values.
- Participation: The action of taking part in activities or processes. Paulo Freire emphasised that meaningful participation requires critical consciousness and active engagement.
- Volunteering: Offering services freely to benefit another person, group, or organisation. Freire viewed voluntary action as essential for building social solidarity.
- Social capital: The networks of relationships among people in a society that enable it to function effectively. Robert Putnam identified social capital as crucial for democratic participation and community wellbeing.
The focus examines how individuals contribute to their communities through active participation and civic engagement. The impact of community initiatives on social cohesion and development, along with the role of NGOs, demonstrates practical citizenship in action.
Practical Example: Community Volunteering Impact
A local environmental group organises river clean-up activities. Through this initiative:
- Social capital is built through networking and shared purpose
- Active citizenship is demonstrated through voluntary participation
- Community engagement addresses local environmental concerns
- Democratic participation occurs through collaborative decision-making about project priorities
Topic 4: Rights and responsibilities in communication with others
Communication rights and responsibilities have become increasingly important in our digital age, requiring new understandings of ethical behaviour and democratic participation.
Key concepts you need to know:
- Freedom of speech: The right to express opinions without censorship or restraint. Locke identified free expression as fundamental to democratic society and individual liberty.
- Digital citizenship: The norms of appropriate, responsible behaviour regarding technology use. Noam Chomsky has analysed how digital media can both enhance and threaten democratic communication.
- Ethical communication: The practice of conveying messages in a manner that is truthful, fair, and respectful. Paulo Freire emphasised that authentic communication requires dialogue and mutual respect.
- Media literacy: The ability to access, analyse, evaluate, and create media in various forms. Chomsky's work on media analysis provides frameworks for understanding how information is constructed and disseminated.
The focus examines rights and responsibilities in both online and offline communication. Case studies of online activism and the impact of social media on public opinion and policy demonstrate the practical implications of communication ethics.
Digital communication carries the same ethical responsibilities as face-to-face interaction, but the speed and reach of digital platforms can amplify both positive contributions and harmful content. Understanding these responsibilities is crucial for modern citizenship.
Strand 3: Human rights and responsibilities
Topic 5: Human rights and responsibilities in Ireland
The Irish human rights framework demonstrates how universal principles are implemented within specific national contexts through constitutional and legal protections.
Key concepts you need to know:
- Human rights: Rights inherent to all human beings, regardless of race, sex, nationality, ethnicity, language, religion, or other status. Locke's natural rights theory provided philosophical foundations for modern human rights concepts.
- Equality: The state of being equal, especially in status, rights, and opportunities. Martha Nussbaum has developed capabilities approaches to understanding human equality and dignity.
- Justice: Fair behaviour or treatment; the quality of being fair and reasonable. John Rawls' theory of justice provides frameworks for understanding fairness in social institutions.
- The Constitution: A body of fundamental principles establishing how a state or organisation is governed. Constitutional frameworks, as understood by Locke, establish the basic rules for political authority.
- Legal protections: Laws and regulations that protect individuals' rights and freedoms. These mechanisms ensure that human rights principles are enforceable in practice.
The focus examines Ireland's human rights framework, including constitutional provisions and various human rights laws. Analysis of landmark legal cases and the role of the Irish Human Rights and Equality Commission provides practical examples of rights protection.
Ireland's Constitution, adopted in 1937, includes both fundamental rights (like personal liberty and freedom of expression) and directive principles of social policy (like social justice and welfare). This dual approach balances individual freedoms with collective social responsibilities.
Topic 6: Human rights and responsibilities in Europe and the wider world
International human rights frameworks extend national protections through supranational institutions and treaties that create binding obligations on states.
Key concepts you need to know:
- Universal Declaration of Human Rights: A historic document adopted by the UN General Assembly in 1948, outlining fundamental rights and freedoms. This document, influenced by Locke's natural rights theory, established global standards for human dignity.
- European Convention on Human Rights: An international treaty protecting human rights and political freedoms in Europe. This creates enforceable legal obligations for member states.
- International law: Rules established by treaty or custom that govern relations between nations. These legal frameworks create binding obligations for state behaviour.
- Global justice: The idea of fairness in relations between individuals and institutions at the global level. Martha Nussbaum's cosmopolitan approach addresses questions of justice beyond national boundaries.
The focus examines human rights issues at European and global levels, including the role of international organisations. Analysis of the effectiveness of international human rights treaties and organisations provides insights into global governance challenges.
International human rights law creates a hierarchy of protections: individuals can appeal to European courts when national systems fail, and to UN bodies when regional systems are inadequate. However, enforcement remains challenging without global government structures.
Strand 4: Globalisation and localisation
Topic 7: Globalisation and identity
Globalisation's impact on identity presents both opportunities for cultural exchange and challenges to local traditions, requiring careful balance between global engagement and cultural preservation.
Key concepts you need to know:
- Globalisation: The process by which businesses and organisations develop international influence or operate on an international scale. Thomas Hylland Eriksen has analysed how globalisation creates both connections and conflicts between cultures.
- Cultural identity: The identity or feeling of belonging to a group. Edward Said's work on cultural representation shows how identities are constructed and contested.
- Diversity: The state of being diverse; variety. Kwame Anthony Appiah argues that diversity enriches human experience and understanding.
- Integration: The process of combining or adding parts to make a unified whole. Eriksen examines how integration can occur while preserving cultural distinctiveness.
- Cultural homogenisation: The process by which local cultures are transformed or absorbed by dominant outside cultures. Said's analysis shows how this process can threaten cultural diversity and local autonomy.
The focus examines globalisation's impact on cultural identities and local communities. Case studies of cultural exchange and conflict explore the balance between preserving local identity and embracing global culture.
Globalisation creates a tension between homogenisation and diversity. While global media and commerce can spread dominant cultures, digital technologies also enable minority cultures to connect globally and preserve their distinctiveness.
Topic 8: Sustainable development
Sustainable development principles require balancing economic growth with environmental protection and social equity to ensure resources remain available for future generations.
Key concepts you need to know:
- Sustainability: The ability to be maintained at a certain rate or level. Kate Raworth's work on planetary boundaries shows how sustainability requires living within ecological limits.
- Environmental protection: Practices that aim to conserve the natural environment and resources. Vandana Shiva advocates for environmental protection as essential for human survival and justice.
- Economic development: The process by which economic well-being and quality of life improve for communities. Sustainable economic development, as outlined by Raworth, must respect ecological boundaries.
- Social equity: Fairness in social policy, ensuring everyone has equal opportunities. Nussbaum's capabilities approach emphasises that development must benefit all members of society.
- Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs): A collection of 17 global goals set by the UN General Assembly in 2015 for 2030. These goals integrate economic, social, and environmental dimensions of sustainable development.
The focus examines sustainable development principles and the balance between economic growth and environmental protection. Analysis of environmental policies and case studies of successful sustainable development projects demonstrate practical applications.
Practical Example: The Triple Bottom Line
Sustainable development requires balancing three interconnected dimensions:
- Economic - ensuring financial viability and prosperity
- Environmental - protecting natural resources and ecosystems
- Social - promoting equity and quality of life for all
Success requires that all three dimensions are considered together, not prioritised separately.
Exam Success Strategies:
- Definitions matter: Learn key concepts precisely as they often appear in short-answer questions
- Know your thinkers: Be able to connect key political theorists with their main ideas
- Use examples: Case studies and real-world applications strengthen analytical answers
- Compare and contrast: Many questions ask you to evaluate different approaches or systems
- Structure answers clearly: Use the bullet points and clear paragraphs that examiners expect
Essential Concepts to Remember:
- Authority derives its legitimacy from consent and acceptance by those governed
- Democracy requires active participation, not just voting, to function effectively
- Human rights are universal but require legal and institutional protections to be meaningful
- Globalisation creates both opportunities for cultural exchange and threats to local identities
- Sustainable development balances economic, social, and environmental needs for long-term viability