War of Independence and Civil War (Grade 12 NSC Matric History): Revision Notes

War of Independence and Civil War

Angola's journey to independence was marked by a prolonged liberation struggle followed by a devastating civil war that lasted nearly three decades. Understanding this complex conflict requires examining the colonial background, the independence movements, and the international involvement that transformed Angola into a Cold War battleground.

Portuguese colonialism and the path to independence

Colonial foundations

Portuguese colonial rule in Angola was established in the 16th century, initially focused on coastal trading posts. The Treaty of Berlin in 1885 formally recognised Angola's colonial boundaries, after which Portugal began serious investment in mining, agriculture, and infrastructure development.

In 1951, Angola became an overseas province of Portugal rather than a colony. This change introduced the assimilado system, where Africans could adopt Portuguese language and culture to gain certain privileges.

However, this created a divided society with different groups:

• Mestiços (mixed-race people) in coastal towns
• Creole families who had adopted Portuguese culture
• Portuguese-speaking blacks on the coast and inland
• Rural peasants who maintained indigenous languages and traditions

These social divisions, combined with tribal differences, would later influence the formation of competing liberation movements.

The emergence of liberation movements

When peaceful calls for independence were rejected in 1960, armed resistance began. Three main nationalist movements emerged to fight Portuguese rule:

MPLA (Popular Movement for the Liberation of Angola)

• Founded in 1956
• Led by Agostinho Neto
• Initially adopted peaceful methods but turned to armed struggle in 1961
• Supported primarily by whites, mestiços, and the Ambundu ethnic group
• Based in the central regions and controlled oil-rich coastal areas

FNLA (National Front for the Liberation of Angola)

• Founded in 1961
• Led by Holden Roberto
• Launched attacks from bases in the Congo
• Drew support mainly from northern Angola

UNITA (National Union for the Total Independence of Angola)

• Founded in 1966
• Led by Jonas Savimbi
• Supported by the Ovimbundu ethnic group in southern Angola
• Later became a black-nationalist movement

The War of Independence (1961-1974)

Stage 1: The rebellion begins (1961)

The independence struggle started when Angolan peasants rebelled in 1961, boycotting cotton production and demanding better working conditions and higher wages. They also attacked Portuguese traders.

Holden Roberto's forces launched an incursion from the Congo, leading to attacks on trading centres and government installations that resulted in many deaths. The Portuguese Armed Forces retaliated harshly, forcing the rebels to adopt guerrilla warfare tactics and continue their struggle using different strategies.

Stage 2: International involvement grows

The conflict became complicated due to ethnic and ideological differences between the liberation movements. The Carnation Revolution - a leftist military coup in Portugal on 25 April 1974 - ended the colonial conflict and brought independence to Mozambique and Angola.

Stage 3: The path to independence

The new Portuguese leftist government announced its intention to grant Angola independence. Complex negotiations began between the three liberation movements and the Portuguese government due to ethnic and ideological differences.

On 15 January 1975, leaders signed the Alvor Agreement, which recommended:

• A transitional government headed by a Portuguese High Commissioner
• Integration of liberation forces
• National elections
• Independence date set for 11 November 1975

However, the coalition government collapsed, and fighting resumed between the MPLA and FNLA to control Luanda, the capital city.

The Civil War begins (1975-2002)

Stage 4: Independence and immediate conflict

Admiral Cardosa, the last Portuguese High Commissioner, abandoned Angola without officially transferring authority to any faction leader. On 11 November 1975, Agostinho Neto declared the People's Republic of Angola in accordance with the Alvor Accords, while UNITA and FNLA established a rival government inland with South African government support.

The civil war intensified and continued for the next 27 years, becoming one of Africa's longest and most destructive conflicts.

Why did civil war break out?

Ideological differences - The liberation movements had fundamentally different political philosophies that prevented cooperation. Deep ethnic and regional divisions also made unification difficult, as each movement represented different tribal groups and geographical areas.

Ambitious leadership - Each leader wanted power and control for themselves, making compromise impossible.

Cold War interference - Foreign intervention during the Cold War era exploited existing mistrust and divisions, delaying any potential settlement. The superpowers saw Angola as strategically important and supported different factions.