History of the Internet (HSC SSCE Legal Studies): Revision Notes

History of the Internet

The development of computers

The story of the internet begins with the evolution of computing technology. Understanding how computers developed helps explain why the internet emerged in the way it did.

Early computing machines (1880-1940s)

While computers can be traced back to early calculators, the real breakthrough came at the start of the $20^{\text{th}}$ century with punch card technology powered by electricity.

In 1880, an $18$-year-old engineer named Henry Hollerich revolutionised data processing. He invented a machine using punch cards and spring-mounted needles that created electrical loops to tabulate information. This innovation was first used in the 1890 Census and reduced processing time from seven years to just two and a half years.

Hollerich's success led him to found the Tabulating Machine Company, which expanded into payroll, inventory and billing services for large companies. In 1924, this company became International Business Machines (IBM).

World War II and the electronic revolution

Before and during World War II, scientists in England, Germany and the United States began replacing mechanical calculating parts with electronic circuits. Early computers like the Z3, Atanasoff-Berry Computer, Colossus computers and ENIAC used valve-based circuits.

These early machines were vastly different from today's personal computers:

• The ENIAC (Electronic Numerical Integrator And Calculator) used $18\,000$ vacuum tubes
• It occupied over $200$ square metres
• It weighed over $50$ tonnes

In 1948, IBM's Selective Sequence Electronic Calculator made calculations about the moon's position that were later used in the 1969 Apollo moon landing.

By the end of the 1940s, several large government-owned mainframe computers existed. The first commercial computers appeared in 1951:

• The Lyons Electronic Office in England solved clerical problems
• The UNIVAC 1 in the United States, made for the US Census Bureau, occupied $943$ cubic feet and cost $1 million (46 units were sold)

IBM and the computer boom (1950s-1960s)

IBM entered the computer market in 1953 with the 701 EDPM Computer. The company's growth was remarkable:

• 1954: IBM 650 magnetic drum calculator became the first mass-produced computer ($450$ sold)
• 1959: 7000 series mainframes (first fully transistorised computers)
• 1961: IBM held over $80\%$ market share; demand for the 1400 series reached $1\,200$ units
• 1964: IBM sold over $1\,000$ computers per month

Other competitors, including Commodore Business Machines (CBM) and AT&T, entered the market by the end of the 1960s.

The personal computer era (1970s-1990s)

In 1970, the Palo Alto Research Center in California attracted talented scientists who developed transformative technologies:

• PC graphical user interface
• Ethernet
• Laser printer

The personal computer (PC) revolution began in 1976 when Steve Wozniak designed the Apple I. The Apple II followed in 1977, achieving instant success with its brilliant colour graphics when connected to a television monitor.

1981 marked IBM's entry into the PC market with a machine using Microsoft's MS-DOS operating system.

In 1982, Commodore introduced the Commodore 64, which remained in production until 1993. With over $22$ million units sold, the Guinness Book of Records recognised it in 2006 as the greatest selling computer of all time.

IBM introduced the mouse with its PS/2 machines in 1987, which included Intel's 80386 chip—a microprocessor used in PCs for many years.

By the mid-1990s, computers were becoming common in homes across Australia, the United States, other Western countries, and advanced Asian nations like Japan. In 1995, $50\%$ of American adults reported regularly using a computer at home or work.

The separation of hardware and software

One often overlooked but crucial development was the unbundling of hardware from software.

Generative platform: a platform that invites innovation by others. This means users are free to use software created by anyone or even create their own software, tailoring their computers to their own requirements.

The arrival of the internet

The internet emerged from efforts to connect computers across networks, enabling communication and information sharing.

ARPANET: the foundation (1972-1982)

In 1972, the Advanced Research Projects Agency Network (ARPANET) established the first true network linking computers in $40$ different locations. A new program was trialled that enabled sending individual messages across the network—what we now call email.

In 1974, scientists who developed ARPANET, working with researchers from Stanford University, created a common language: Transmission Control Protocol/Internet Protocol (TCP/IP). This protocol enabled computers from different networks to communicate with each other.

TCP/IP: a universal language that allows different computer networks to communicate with each other; became the foundation of the modern internet.

Computer networks developed in various places with different and competing systems, but ARPANET remained the backbone holding these systems together.

In 1981, the term internet was coined to refer to this collection of interconnected networks.

By 1982, when ARPANET adopted the TCP/IP system, the internet was positioned for massive expansion.

Non-scientific developments drive expansion (1983-1990)

From 1983 onwards, non-scientific developments led to further internet expansion:

1983: The Domain Name System (DNS) was invented, making the internet easier to navigate by translating user-friendly host names into IP addresses. The system introduced organisational structure:

• .edu for education sites
• .gov for government sites
• .com for commercial sites
• .org for international organisations
• Country codes like .au (Australia), .ca (Canada), .uk (United Kingdom)

The DNS made host computer names easier to remember and navigate.

The birth of the World Wide Web

In 1990, Tim Berners-Lee at CERN (the European Organization of Nuclear Research) in Geneva, Switzerland, developed the first internet browser/editor. This program could find and retrieve computer files using two new systems:

Hypertext Markup Language (HTML): a language for web pages that allows links hidden behind text to be denoted as lists, links, headings, paragraphs, embedded images and other content.

Hypertext Transfer Protocol (HTTP): a language used by web browsers to transmit HTML along with images, sound and other content.

Timeline of the World Wide Web:

• 1991: The World Wide Web became a reality
• 1992: One million hosts on the internet; the term "surfing the net" was coined
• 1994: Commercial websites began proliferating across the internet
• 1995-1997: Host computers increased from $3$ million to $19.5$ million
• Late 1990s: Commercialisation continued at an exponential rate

The new millennium and beyond

The internet and World Wide Web continued expanding into the new millennium:

• 2002: Two million host computers; $840$ million users
• Currently: Approximately $3.17$ billion internet users worldwide

The internet and World Wide Web have become integral to millions of people's lives in developed countries. Developing countries recognise they must increase internet access or risk falling further behind—a problem known as the digital divide.

Visions and visionaries of the World Wide Web

Early in the World Wide Web's development, an optimistic vision emerged declaring this new realm of human activity was somehow unique. As Jack Goldsmith and Tim Wu wrote in Who Controls the Internet?, the idea of this new space tapped into a deep human desire for liberation from the world around us, offering hope that it could "somehow liberate us from the human condition."

The dream of a law-free internet

The idea developed that the internet and World Wide Web could and should remain free of government interference and, indeed, free of law. This proposition seemed credible because all key technological innovations creating the internet and World Wide Web came from private individuals' initiative—people passionate about spreading ideas and knowledge and creating mechanisms for easier digital communication between like-minded people.

This hope was shared by:

• Libertarians: who believed things would be better with no government interference
• Internationalists: who believed international laws replacing state laws in cyberspace could improve human affairs

However, within a short time of these visions being articulated, they were tested in the courts.

Architecture of the internet

The internet's rambling, haphazard structure resulted from its creation by private citizens acting on their own initiative.

The founding engineers

The internet's founding engineers were mostly US academics and computer scientists, including:

• Vinton Cerf
• Jon Postel
• Dave Clark
• Larry Roberts
• Robert Kahn

This group created the TCP/IP protocol, a successful universal language that became the foundation of today's internet.

Open architecture principles

The TCP/IP protocol was revolutionary because it was an open architecture:

• Open to anyone: Any type of computer or network could join
• Required very little in return: Minimal requirements from computer users who joined
• Neutral regarding applications: New and better software applications could be designed by anyone and used on the internet, replacing old and outdated applications

The Internet Engineering Task Force (IETF)

In 1986, a group of internet engineers led by Vinton Cerf established the Internet Engineering Task Force (IETF) as the central standards body for the internet.

These engineers believed in a "bottom-up" approach to internet governance. As Dave Clark stated in 1992:

We reject: kings, presidents, and voting. We believe in: rough consensus and running code.

Remember!