New Religious Expression (HSC SSCE Studies of Religion): Revision Notes

New Religious Expression

Understanding new religious movements

When examining religion in modern society, it's important to understand how religious movements change and develop over time. The terminology used to describe these movements has shifted significantly, reflecting changing attitudes toward religious diversity.

Terminology and definitions

The term cult has historically been used to describe fringe religious groups, often carrying negative connotations of danger and illegitimacy. This word is typically used as a pejorative term, suggesting that a group lacks the respectability associated with established religions. However, this label is frequently applied unfairly to valid new religious movements simply because they are unfamiliar or unconventional.

The preferred term is new religious movement, which provides a more neutral and respectful way to discuss these groups. This terminology acknowledges that all religions were once new and faced similar skepticism. For instance, Christianity itself was initially attacked as a strange group with misunderstood rituals, and Buddhism and Islam were once despised for being innovative.

A sect refers to a subgroup within an existing religious tradition that emphasizes particular aspects that distinguish it from other groups within the same tradition. Sects typically break away from mainstream denominations while maintaining some connection to the parent religion.

Historical context and examples

This illustrates the difficulty in defining religious boundaries and the importance of approaching new movements with careful consideration rather than dismissive labels.

It's crucial to differentiate between genuinely dangerous groups (true cults), sects that have broken away from larger traditions, and legitimate new expressions of religious belief. This determination can only be made through careful observation of a new religion's goals and operations over time.

The rise of new religious expressions and spiritualities

How religions emerge and evolve

Religious movements arise and develop in response to societal changes. As societies transform, people must adapt their ways of thinking. When existing religious systems fail to meet people's expectations or address their concerns, individuals may convert to other faiths. If enough people convert, the old religious tradition may cease to exist, or a new faith may develop while the old tradition continues to exist but struggles for survival.

New religions emerge through various mechanisms. Some arise from splits in older traditions, while others form when a charismatic leader establishes a completely new movement. Understanding that all current traditional religions were once new movements helps provide perspective. Buddhism, Islam, and Christianity all faced opposition and misunderstanding when they first appeared.

Social crises as catalysts

Modern new religions like Theosophy and Scientology grew from the upheavals of war and increased contact between Western and Eastern cultures during the twentieth century.

Theosophy was established in the late 1800s as a spiritualist group that incorporated Hindu and Buddhist teachings. It emerged when Western societies were becoming increasingly interested in spiritualism and Eastern religions, reflecting the concerns of that era.

Scientology began in the 1950s, growing out of a self-help book called Dianetics by L. Ron Hubbard, a journalist and science-fiction writer. Like Theosophy, it linked Eastern concepts (such as reincarnation) with Western ideas, helping it grow during a period of cultural exchange.

The Age of Aquarius and 1960s-70s movements

The 1960s and 1970s witnessed a surge in new religious movements, driven by widespread dissatisfaction with traditional religions. Global tensions including the nuclear arms race, the possibility of nuclear war, and the horrors of the Vietnam War prompted many young Americans, Europeans, and Australians to seek alternative spiritual paths.

This period became known as the Age of Aquarius, characterized by followers who declared it brought a new understanding of spirituality and universal love. Many religious movements from this era evolved into what is now called the New Age movement. This movement emphasizes the fluidity of religious ideas and maintains a cautious stance toward traditional religious institutions. Many participants describe themselves as focusing on "spirituality" rather than "religion," suggesting a more individualized and less structured approach to the sacred.

Pentecostalism as new religious expression

Traditional religious traditions have also experienced the rise of new spiritualities. The Pentecostal movement, which began in the early twentieth century, represents a significant shift within Christianity. These groups emphasize the gifts of the Holy Spirit and reject many traditional practices.

Pentecostal churches have transformed worship by:

• Replacing parish churches with large regional churches
• Abandoning traditional liturgy in favor of flexible, contemporary services
• Using modern music instead of organ music
• Employing relaxed leadership styles with specialized ministry leaders
• Focusing on enthusiastic worship, often with raised hands
• Incorporating healing practices
• Using repetitive choruses
• Emphasizing speaking in tongues (speaking in the 'language of the Holy Spirit') and prophecy

Case study: Rastafari

Origins and development

When Jamaican musician Bob Marley gained international recognition in the 1970s, few people realized he was promoting a new religion. Most audiences thought he was simply introducing a new musical style, reggae. However, his songs contained numerous religious references including Exodus (the departure of the Israelites from Egypt), redemption (salvation), and Zion (referring to Jerusalem or any holy/ideal place).

Marley belonged to the Rastafarian religion, which originated in the writings of Marcus Garvey. Garvey (1887–1940), a Jamaican nationalist, taught that people descended from African slaves, particularly those in the United States, should return to Africa. He was considered a religious prophet by many and proclaimed: "Look to Africa, for there a king will be crowned."

Core beliefs and practices

Haile Selassie I, a member of the Ethiopian Orthodox Church, took the title "King of Kings, Lord of Lords and Conquering Lion of Judah" at his coronation. Rastafarians consider him the Messiah. Although Haile Selassie never officially endorsed this view or the Rastafarian faith, his 1966 visit to Jamaica attracted 200,000 Jamaicans who greeted him as a Messianic figure. His language adopted the tone of a spiritual leader, and his aspirations for Africa aligned with Rastafarian ideals. Rastafarians do not accept his 1975 death, believing he remains alive, and they maintain that they should return to their spiritual homeland of Ethiopia.

Rastafarian beliefs include:

• African people are descendants of the tribes of Israel (Zion)
• White people represent Babylon from the Bible, symbolizing evil influence
• Dietary laws from Leviticus and Deuteronomy should be followed; many are vegetarians or vegans (dietary laws called Ital)
• Jah (shortened form of Jehovah, the name for God) blessed the herbs of the field, making cannabis smoking a sacrament (some courts have recognized this, effectively decriminalizing cannabis use for religious purposes)
• Hair and body should not be cut, leading to dreadlocks and rejection of tattoos
• Unique Rastafarian expressions in language

Social structure and culture

Rastafarians have developed their own sense of social cohesion, believing they belong to a good black society opposed to an evil white world. They emphasize ethical responsibility to each other, often using the phrase "I and I" rather than "we" to stress this individual and collective responsibility. They seek redemption in Africa where they envision ruling a new society.

Without a structured organization, many Rastafarians pursue simple lifestyles. They meet for ethical and religious discussions and conduct services, often incorporating elements from the Ethiopian Orthodox Church. At gatherings, Nyabinghi music is played, which evolved into reggae music in popular culture. Bob Marley became one of the best-known proponents of reggae until his death in 1981. His songs, including "Exodus" and "Redemption Song," reveal the deep religious basis of his music.

Case study: New Age religions

Historical context and emergence

Significant changes in Western society during the 1960s and 1970s created conditions favorable for New Age religions. Cheap travel and global communications made people increasingly aware of the world as a whole, with cultural differences being understood in more personal terms. The Beatles' visit to the Maharishi Mahesh Yogi in India brought Eastern mysticism to Western popular attention. The musical Hair proclaimed the coming of the Age of Aquarius, while baby boomers increasingly rejected traditional Christian churches in their search for freedom from institutionalized religion and personal fulfillment.

Characteristics and practices

New Age spiritualities incorporate diverse concepts including:

• Karma
• Reincarnation
• Universalism (all religions are the same path to God or reincarnation)
• Pantheism
• Ecological responsibility

Practices involve various religious influences:

• Channeling (contacting 'spirit guides')
• Astrology
• Meditation
• Ambient music
• Using crystals for healing
• Popular psychology

Motivations and worldview

People moved toward New Age spiritualities for several reasons:

• Lack of personal fulfillment in traditional churches
• Perceived failings of traditional churches, including sexism and child abuse
• Opportunity to explore diverse spiritualities, from traditional Eastern religions to animistic Native American religious ideas to wicca and astrology
• Emphasis on individual experience fitting with postmodernism's rejection of external authority and religious absolutes

Impact and influence

New Age practitioners in Australia range from hippy communities in Nimbin to business executives in Sydney, including both those who rejected consumer materialism and those who embraced the human potential movement's promise of wealth. Initially treated with suspicion, the New Age movement has significantly influenced Western society, including the growth of Pentecostalism with its emphasis on prosperity doctrine and reaction against mainstream institutional churches.

The New Age movement has been responsible for many now-accepted practices and concepts in modern society:

• Holistic medicine
• Environmentalism
• Meditation
• Yoga

The search for personal fulfillment

Charismatic versus bureaucratic leadership

New religions attract people seeking personal fulfillment who cannot find satisfaction in traditional religious expressions. These movements are often led by charismatic leaders. Sociologist Max Weber distinguished between two leadership types:

Bureaucratic leadership operates through established positions and institutional authority, such as the pope in Catholicism or imams in Islam. These leaders derive authority from their official role within a structured organization.

Charismatic leadership emerges outside bureaucracies. Charismatic leaders possess natural gifts and personal qualities that enable them to solve problems immediately without relying on large institutional machinery. Their authority comes from their personality and perceived abilities rather than official position.

Examples and impact

Charismatic leaders like A.C. Bhaktivedanta Swami Prabhupada (founder of the Hare Krishnas, more correctly known as the International Society for Krishna Consciousness) build large movements through attractive personalities and leadership skills. They help people find an immediate sense of meaning in their lives, offering enthusiasm that can be harder to find in older, more structured religious traditions.

Sometimes people become involved with new religions without realizing it. Bob Marley was accepted as a fine musician and rock star before many people understood he was promoting Rastafari, demonstrating how new religious ideas can spread through cultural channels.

Responsiveness and adaptation

New religions can respond quickly to pressing social issues, while traditional religions are generally constrained by rules and procedures that delay decision-making. This agility makes new movements particularly attractive to those seeking immediate responses to contemporary concerns.

Women's participation and leadership

During the twentieth century, new religions attracted high levels of female participation. Groups like Theosophy and Caodaism are notable for providing women access to leadership positions. Caodaism, which began in 1926 in Vietnam as a syncretistic religion blending global religious ideas into a single structure, developed hierarchies for both men and women. A Caodai Temple exists in Wiley Park, NSW. This contrasts sharply with traditional Christian churches like the Catholic Church and some Anglican and Lutheran denominations, which still only ordain men to the priesthood.

Focus on contemporary issues

Many new spiritualities emphasize contemporary social issues that traditional religions have neglected, including ecological awareness and social justice. This focus on current concerns makes new religious expressions particularly relevant to people seeking religions that engage with modern challenges.

Seeking ethical guidelines

Post-war disillusionment

Traditional religions' perceived inability to adapt to new ethical positions became particularly problematic in the second half of the twentieth century. In the West, established religions had supported governments involved in two major world wars and, from 1945, a terrifying arms race. Other issues emerged including alternative lifestyles, changing concepts of marriage and family, homosexuality, social awareness, and rejection of traditional organizational structures. Small groups sought new understandings of spirituality that did not rely on traditional religion.

Wicca and modern paganism

This new spirituality, called wicca, operated without an official church or priests, giving practitioners considerable freedom.

Wicca sought spirituality from the land and nature, attempting to return to ancient solstice rituals and pagan practices such as Easter celebrations that had been Christianized. Through these practices and pagan deities, wiccans sought spirituality in tune with the planet and nature, influencing the rise of New Age religion.

Environmental ethics

A new ethics based on respect rather than exploitation of the planet developed from these post-war movements. The Christian God was seen as male, warlike, and dominating, so pagans built their ethical system around gods and goddesses who upheld respect for the planet, feminine values, and care for other humans. Paganism and the later New Age movement gave rise to eco-spirituality, where care for the planet and its people became more important than following rules and regulations.

Traditional religions were seen as rules-based and unable to respond to perceived needs, often allied with those exploiting the environment. While Christians emphasize the command to "have dominion over the world" (Genesis 1:28), this was sometimes interpreted as permission to abuse the environment. New spiritualities emphasized environmental care, manifesting in movements like the Greens political party and organizations like Greenpeace.

The relationship of new religions with society

Separation and engagement

New religious movements offer opportunities to escape mainstream religious society. Groups like the Hare Krishnas (International Society for Krishna Consciousness) encourage communal living away from the complexities of modern life. Sometimes these groups seek total breaks with society, leading to accusations of being cults. However, this separation is not always complete.

People participating in New Age spiritualities often work to effect changes in their own lives that will help change the planet. This includes:

• Working in jobs focused on caring for people and the environment
• Joining charity groups
• Being involved in organic food cooperatives
• Refusing to engage in activities encouraging unnecessary consumption of products and resources

Support and acceptance

New religious groups are often seen as more supportive of new members and less judgmental than traditional religions. Many who have felt disenfranchised by mainstream religious traditions find the acceptance and support offered by new religious expressions to be of great comfort. This welcoming atmosphere contributes significantly to the appeal of these movements.

Influences on the growth of new spiritualities

The rise of materialism and consumerism

During the twentieth century, Western economies evolved to extremely sophisticated levels. The consumption of goods and services shifted from being a means to a better life to becoming life's goal itself. This represents the rise of consumerism, where individuals increasingly define themselves by what they own rather than by their connections to community.

New religious movements can thrive by either opposing or joining this consumerist system. The Church of Scientology, with its expensive self-improvement courses, is often cited as embracing consumerism. Non-consumerist new religions, such as the Hare Krishnas, emphasize self-sufficiency and reject obsessive consumption.

Scientific progress and anxiety

Professor Eric Sharpe (founding Professor of Religious Studies at the University of Sydney) proposed his "aspirin theory" of religion: that religion exists partly to make life comfortable and healthy, particularly in societies lacking advanced technology to provide health and comfort easily. In this view, as science increasingly explains how the world works, people become less likely to need magical and religious explanations.

However, science and technology also generate significant anxiety. Recent developments in mapping the human genome suggest scientists are beginning to understand humanity's essential nature and may be able to control it through genetic modification. Both old and new religions express concern about unchecked scientific and technological progress. People in new religions often pursue self-sufficiency to avoid dependence on technology.

The rise of holistic medicine and popular psychology, particularly the human potential movement, demonstrates people—especially those influenced by the New Age movement—choosing not to accept scientific progress uncritically. For many, science and religion represent complementary rather than incompatible ways of understanding the world.

Growth of ecological awareness

The New Age movement has championed environmentalism. While Christian ecologists have existed throughout history (St. Francis of Assisi, Hildegard of Bingen), the Church has often been identified with big business and environmental exploitation. Christians emphasizing the command to "have dominion over the world" (Genesis 1:28) have sometimes used this as justification for environmental abuse.

New spiritualities emphasize environmental care, visible in the Greens political party and groups like Greenpeace. New Agers are often actively involved in seeking:

• Green alternatives to fossil-fuel energy (wind and solar power)
• Chemical-free agriculture (permaculture and organic farming)
• Innovations ranging from sustainable architecture to biodiesel fuels

Disenchantment with traditional religious practice and guidance

Recent years have seen many Australians leaving traditional Christian churches. The 2016 census revealed nearly one-third of Australians declared no religion. Other religions grew in numbers, and new spiritualities like Pentecostalism experienced significant growth. Christianity declined from 71 percent in 1996 to 52.1 percent in 2016, reflected particularly in traditional denominations.

Several reasons explain this decline:

• General decline in organizational membership across society, from churches to service organizations (Rotary) to groups like Scouts and the Country Women's Association
• Decreased acceptance of religious affiliation simply through family tradition
• Mainstream religion becoming less important due to materialism, consumerism, and competing commitments (such as sports during traditional service times)
• Decline of Sunday schools and youth groups reflecting unpopularity of church involvement
• Perceived problems including sexism, hypocrisy, and child abuse leading to disenchantment with traditional churches
• New spiritualities not seen as having structures that reinforce these problems

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