Persuasive Strategies and Techniques (VCE SSCE English): Revision Notes
Persuasive strategies and techniques
Introduction to persuasive writing
When writers present arguments on important issues, they use a variety of strategies and techniques to convince readers to agree with their viewpoint. These persuasive tools fall into two main categories: language techniques and structural strategies.
Language techniques involve specific word choices and devices such as metaphor, repetition and anecdote. These create particular effects on the reader, influencing their emotional and rational responses to the argument.
Structural strategies relate to how the writer organises their argument. This includes decisions about where to place the main contention, how to order supporting points, and when to include rebuttals of opposing views.
When analysing persuasive texts, it is essential to consider how these different elements work together to create cumulative effects. Rather than examining techniques in isolation, take a holistic approach that explores how the various strategies combine to strengthen the overall argument and influence the reader.
Language techniques in persuasive writing
Understanding specific persuasive techniques gives you the vocabulary and analytical tools needed to examine any argument effectively. Below are the most common language techniques used in persuasive writing, along with explanations of how they work to influence readers.
Ad hominem attack
An ad hominem attack involves belittling or denigrating an individual or group rather than addressing their actual arguments. This technique positions readers to think negatively about the person or group and therefore dismiss their ideas without proper consideration.
Writers often use emotive language when making ad hominem attacks, creating a strongly negative depiction that undermines the credibility of those being criticised.
Example: Ad Hominem Attack in Action
"That industry leaders are accusing their opponents of acting recklessly and heartlessly is nothing more than a vacuous dummy spit, driven by their refusal to accept that times and opinions have changed."
The dismissive tone positions readers to disregard the industry leaders' concerns. By describing their response as a dummy spit, the writer characterises them as childish and unreasonable, encouraging readers to reject their viewpoint.
Alliteration
Alliteration is the repetition of consonant sounds at the beginning of words. This technique grabs attention and adds emphasis, making it particularly effective in headlines.
While alliteration alone is not especially persuasive, it becomes powerful when combined with other techniques such as puns or emotive language. It draws attention to key words and creates memorable phrases.
Example: Disunity does us disservice (headline)
The alliteration creates an awkward rhythm that captures the reader's attention. This encourages engagement with the writer's disapproval of social division.
Analogy
An analogy compares two different things, leading the audience to draw conclusions based on similarities between them. This technique makes complex issues more accessible by presenting them in familiar, straightforward terms.
Analogies can simplify issues significantly, sometimes making the writer's position appear obviously correct by comparing it to something the reader already understands and accepts.
Example: Using Analogy to Highlight Inaction
"To be able to see changes that can be made and not do them is like putting your feet on the brake and the accelerator at the same time and then wondering why the car isn't moving."
By comparing inaction to an illogical behaviour, the writer makes the situation appear ridiculous. Readers are encouraged to see that taking action is both possible and necessary.
Anecdote
An anecdote is a short story or personal account that provides a human angle to an argument. Anecdotes engage readers emotionally and can convey information in a relatable way.
This technique positions readers to respond emotionally, perhaps with fear, sympathy or pleasure. Because anecdotes feel authentic and true to life, they encourage readers to take notice and accept the information being presented.
Example: There is such a rudeness in customers nowadays. It was bad when I worked at a restaurant years ago, and it has only got worse since COVID.
Using personal experience presents the writer as knowledgeable and credible on this issue. Readers are positioned to see the writer as trustworthy and accept their observations.
Appeal to a sense of justice
This appeal plays on the widespread belief that everyone deserves fair treatment and that outcomes should be just. It positions readers to agree that punishments should fit crimes and that unfairness should be corrected.
Appeals to justice can arouse feelings of anger when someone is punished too harshly or too lightly. They can also generate sympathy and a desire to address unfairness.
Example: If it wouldn't stand at the local footy club, it shouldn't stand just because the player is a lot more well-known. As they say, what is good for the goose is good for the gander.
The writer appeals to the reader's sense of fairness by suggesting all players should follow the same rules. The cliché reinforces this, encouraging readers to feel that well-known players should not receive preferential treatment.
Appeal to authority
Appeals to authority use the opinion of an expert or authority figure to support an argument. This reassures readers that the writer's viewpoint is backed by someone with specialist knowledge.
When readers see that experts agree with the writer's position, they are more likely to respond positively and accept the argument as valid.
Example: Leveraging Expert Opinion
"Top Australian energy expert Tara Beckett believes our energy sources need to change quickly if we are to have any chance of dealing with climate change."
The reference to an expert adds credibility to the writer's position and encourages readers to agree that urgent change is necessary.
Appeal to common sense
This appeal refers to practical, everyday knowledge that people accept as obvious and self-evident. It pressures readers to agree by suggesting that anyone who disagrees lacks basic common sense.
By presenting something as common sense, the writer makes their position seem undeniable and encourages readers to feel foolish if they disagree.
Example: So let's cancel cancel culture once and for all and replace it with real solutions to real problems.
The writer appeals to common sense by contrasting cancel culture with real problems. This positions readers to reconsider what truly matters and to feel sceptical about the value of cancel culture.
Appeal to family values
This appeal suggests that traditional family life provides essential values for a healthy, stable society. It typically assumes the nuclear family as the ideal family structure.
Appeals to family values lead readers to view traditional nuclear families as the most desirable model. They can also position readers to blame social problems on non-traditional family structures.
Example: People don't just buy houses; they buy homes - places to raise children, care for family and create memories.
The writer appeals to family values to suggest that homes carry strong emotional significance beyond their economic value. This encourages readers to see houses as deserving special consideration.
Appeal to fear and insecurity
This appeal suggests that people's safety, security or freedom is under threat. Writers often exaggerate situations to present worst-case scenarios that alarm readers.
Appeals to fear pressure readers to feel that urgent solutions are needed, making them more likely to agree with the writer's proposals. This technique also suggests the writer cares about protecting readers' interests.
Example: If things don't change soon, the information of everyday Aussies will be easy pickings for hackers to sell on the black market.
The sentence appeals to readers' fear of being unable to protect their personal information. The implication that change might happen soon positions readers to be receptive to any solutions the writer offers.
Appeal to financial self-interest
This appeal suggests that people's financial wellbeing is threatened because they are being overcharged or exploited. It incites strong emotions such as anger at being ripped off or at money being misused.
This technique positions readers to reject the views of those who want to raise prices or fees, and to support measures that protect their financial interests.
Example: Triggering Financial Outrage
"Considering that mobile coverage drops out if you go too far from the city and the run-around you get if something doesn't work, these greedy telcos are already making a pretty penny while not doing much. So now why do they want to charge even more?"
The reader is encouraged to feel outraged that telecommunication companies provide poor service yet want to charge more. Combined with a rhetorical question, this leads readers to question the legitimacy of the companies' behaviour.
Appeal to loyalty and patriotism
This appeal assumes commitment to a group or nation and plays on feelings of national pride. It positions readers to agree with actions that benefit the country or group.
Appeals to loyalty and patriotism can arouse feelings of anger or fear that motivate people to support a cause or take action to defend their group or nation.
Example: Backing the underdog and giving people a fair go is the backbone of the Aussie spirit, and nothing shows that more than the little family business taking on the international superstore.
The appeal to the Aussie spirit encourages Australian readers to support local family businesses over international corporations.
Appeal to tradition and custom
This appeal encourages feelings of security based on the belief that rituals and traditions are valuable and should be preserved. It positions readers to resist change and maintain links with the past.
Appeals to tradition can position readers to view modern lifestyles as inferior and damaging to social cohesion.
Example: I'd much rather keep a governor-general to act as a constitutional umpire in rare moments of crisis than have a president who could become a political competitor.
The writer appeals to tradition by contrasting the security of familiar systems with the uncertainty of change. Comparing a governor-general to an umpire who maintains order positions readers to feel the existing system is the safest option.
Cliché
A cliché is an overused phrase that most readers quickly grasp and understand. Clichés reassure readers with familiar expressions, which can position them to accept ideas without critical thought.
Clichés often have a comic effect, creating either a lighthearted, amusing tone or a sarcastic, critical tone depending on context.
Example: But if the department heads know in their heart of hearts this is going to be too hard a sell then they need to tell this exec to put a sock in it - quickly.
The writer employs multiple clichés to suggest the department heads need to take action. These familiar phrases make the situation seem clear-cut and the recommended course of action appear obviously correct.
Connotations and loaded words
Connotations are meanings associated with or implied by words, beyond their literal dictionary definitions. Loaded words carry strong positive or negative associations.
The associated meanings of words arouse feelings and attitudes that position readers to accept or reject ideas, people or proposals based on emotional responses rather than purely rational consideration.
Example: Car maker crashes during safety review (headline)
Using the loaded word crashes in a metaphorical sense connects the car maker's problems with deadly outcomes. Readers are encouraged to see the company as negligent or incompetent.
Emotive language
Emotive language involves the deliberate use of strong words and phrases to arouse readers' feelings and manipulate them into agreement. This technique positions readers to react very emotionally, agreeing with the writer's viewpoint before rational consideration comes into play.
Example: Combining Positive and Negative Emotions
"It's time now to give those lazy people in council resting on our past glories an almighty wake-up call. Our wonderful city needs it."
The emotive language encourages readers to feel both proud of their city and angry with the council. The positive emotions associated with wonderful and past glories contrast sharply with the negative feelings linked to lazy workers needing a wake-up call, suggesting council employees do not deserve their positions.
Evidence (including statistics, graphs and diagrams)
Evidence uses facts and figures to provide rational, scientific proof supporting a point of view. This creates the impression of objectivity and reliability.
When writers present statistical evidence, readers are positioned to view the argument as more convincing because it appears objective and well-researched. However, be aware that facts and figures can be used selectively, with contradictory evidence omitted.
Example: Using Statistical Evidence
"According to the Workplace Gender Equality Agency the pay gap is 13 per cent (the lowest on record). Men's average weekly full-time earnings are $1907 and women's are $1603."
By including figures from a reputable agency, the writer presents themselves as knowledgeable and well-informed. Readers are likely to agree with the point because it is clearly supported by data.
While evidence appears objective, always consider that writers may selectively present statistics that support their argument while omitting contradictory data.
Exaggeration, overstatement and hyperbole
These techniques present an extreme view of a situation for dramatic impact and to provoke strong emotional responses. Exaggeration positions readers to respond emotionally, making them more likely to accept or reject a viewpoint.
Exaggeration can also generate humour, positioning readers to approve of the writer's viewpoint through amusement.
Example: Who's to say they'll stop at banning icy poles during summer? Next thing it'll be hot pies at the footy, fish and chips at the beach, or chocolate during Easter.
The exaggeration positions readers to see the banning of icy poles as potentially leading to the loss of other common food traditions, prompting a response of disbelief and rejection.
Generalisation
A generalisation is a sweeping statement suggesting that what is true for some is true for most or all. Generalisations appeal to commonly held beliefs, prejudices and views.
This technique positions readers to regard and judge others in narrow, stereotyped ways, accepting broad claims without considering exceptions or nuances.
Example: Everyone takes the bank's comments with a grain of salt. Banks don't have a lot of credibility after the last few years.
The generalisation that everyone holds a certain view encourages readers to accept that banks are untrustworthy.
Inclusive language
Inclusive language uses we, our, us and similar words to include readers in the same group as the writer. It assumes everyone in the group shares the writer's viewpoint.
Readers are positioned to agree because inclusive language appeals to their desire to belong to the group or plays on their fears of being excluded or regarded as outsiders.
Example: Creating Group Identity
"When will we learn that booing is unacceptable, that the players and umpires are human just like those of us in the stands and that we are all flawed in our own ways."
By using we and our, the writer presents players, umpires and spectators as one group. This positions readers to feel that booing is wrong.
Irony
Irony is a feature of language where the literal meaning is the opposite of the intended meaning. Writers use irony to ridicule or reject ideas or objects.
Readers are positioned to share in the writer's ridicule and rejection. Irony can also influence readers through a sarcastic or humorous tone that is clever and engaging.
Example: Because, naturally, in light of unreliable flights, uncomfortable seats and missing luggage, what we really need is another budget airline cramming in as many people as possible as cheaply as possible.
The sarcastic tone and list of problems positions readers to see the introduction of another cheap, unreliable airline as ridiculous and unnecessary.
Metaphor and simile
Metaphors and similes compare two different things, suggesting similarities between them. Similes use as if or like, whilst metaphors make direct comparisons without these words.
These devices create striking, memorable images with emotional impact that can influence readers' viewpoints. Because they are more engaging than plain description, they can position readers to support the writer's perspective.
Example: It's taxi warfare out there and the scared and baffled casualties are the customers.
The metaphor (which is also hyperbole) conveys the challenging nature of the situation and positions readers to feel concerned or alarmed.
Pun
A pun is wordplay that suggests double or multiple meanings. Puns often play on words with similar sounds but different spellings or meanings.
Puns grab readers' interest and attention, especially through humour. The secondary meaning of a word usually carries positive or negative connotations that help influence the reader's response.
Example: Shining a light on the toll of night driving (headline)
The phrase shining a light references the need for headlights whilst also suggesting that night driving problems need more attention.
Reason and logic
Reason and logic link ideas together to develop arguments supporting the writer's viewpoint. This approach can acknowledge opposing viewpoints whilst demonstrating why the writer's argument is superior.
Readers are positioned to accept the writer's viewpoint as objectively true because it is presented as more than personal opinion or emotional reaction. Logical arguments persuade through well-reasoned cases that can withstand scrutiny. This technique is often used with a calm tone or formal style.
Example: Presenting a Logical Solution
"Surely the logical solution is to build the pools, leave them there permanently at the end of the games, and then use the new grants to make them indoor pools."
The writer implicitly refers to the waste of removing pools built for the games, positioning readers to reject this outcome. The sequence of actions is presented as logical and reasonable, encouraging readers to view this suggestion as a desirable alternative.
Repetition
Repetition involves using the same word or phrase several times. This increases the impact of main points or key terms, engaging the reader's attention more effectively.
Repetition can produce a more urgent or insistent tone, encouraging readers to agree with the point being emphasised.
Example: Everybody knows it. Everybody is uncomfortable. Everybody wants it to change.
The repetition of everybody creates the sense of a universally held belief, which readers are likely to feel they should share.
Rhetorical question
A rhetorical question is a question with an implied but unstated answer. This technique suggests the answer is self-evident, meaning readers must agree with it.
Rhetorical questions directly address readers as a way of eliciting their agreement with the writer's position.
Example: Using Rhetorical Questions for Effect
"In what world is hours of extra work and time for no pay something fair and necessary for students?"
The rhetorical question encourages readers to question what students must deal with and to suspect they are being exploited. The emotive language of in what world is likely to generate feelings of outrage at this injustice and belief that students should be paid for their work and time.
Structuring strategies
Writers make specific language choices to enhance their arguments, but they also carefully construct their arguments in particular ways. Understanding common structuring strategies helps you analyse how the organisation of ideas influences readers' responses.
Placement of the main contention
The writer's placement of their main contention is strongly influenced by the form they are writing in. It is also affected by their overall purpose and how they expect the audience to respond to their arguments.
Stated at the beginning
In short texts such as letters to the editor, writers often outline their contention early and structure their argument around their strongest supporting point. Sometimes the title or headline states the writer's main contention. Speeches also frequently begin with a clear statement of the speaker's position, so listeners know where the speaker stands before hearing the supporting reasons and evidence.
Stating the main contention at the beginning conveys the writer's sense of conviction and grabs the audience's attention, enticing them to follow the argument.
Stated at the end
Longer texts such as feature articles, opinion pieces and editorials might clearly state the main contention in the final paragraph, following a reasoned discussion. This can give the impression that the writer has carefully considered both sides of an issue before reaching their conclusion, encouraging readers to accept the contention as based on thoughtful, balanced consideration.
Repeated
A main contention can be stated more than once. For example, a writer might state their contention in the opening paragraph, then restate it in the conclusion. This is typical of essay structure. Alternatively, the writer might link supporting points back to their contention throughout the piece, conveying the impression that their argument is consistent, well-reasoned and strongly supported by evidence.
Implied
The main contention is sometimes implied rather than explicitly stated. A writer might adopt this strategy to lead readers through various examples and reasons for and against different viewpoints. Readers can thus be positioned to arrive at the same conclusion as the writer in a way that suggests it is the inevitable outcome of the discussion.
Order of supporting points
The order in which supporting reasons or points of argument are placed significantly shapes readers' responses.
Placing points from strongest to weakest can make the piece highly persuasive from the beginning. This has the effect of immediately gaining readers' attention and approval, before the writer consolidates support with further reasons, examples and evidence.
Alternatively, building towards the strongest reasons can leave readers with a powerful impression at the end. This can be especially effective with audiences likely to be neutral towards or hostile to the writer's position. Such audiences might be alienated by a strong, assertive opening, and more likely to be convinced by an argument developed methodically and progressively.
Order of specific and general information
Arguments often combine specific and general information. Specific information might include anecdotes, case studies or research findings. General information relates to broader patterns and might include statistics showing overall trends. The way writers move from specific to general information (or from general to specific) can influence how audiences respond.
A writer might begin with specific information or a particular case, then move to a general discussion of underlying principles and wider consequences. This approach can suggest the writer's conclusions are valid since they are based on tangible, real-world evidence.
Beginning with an anecdote or discussion of personal experience engages the audience's attention by seeming both relatable and knowledgeable. It can also make the issue more relevant to the audience. This strategy is often used in speeches. The writer or speaker is then likely to move to a discussion of broader patterns or typical situations before arriving at a contention.
Alternatively, a writer might begin with a discussion of broader ideas underpinning their contention, before supporting these with specific information or evidence. This could be effective if the writer needs to establish context and explain their purpose from the outset.
Creation of a dichotomy
The word dichotomy refers to a division into two parts or ideas. A common persuasive tactic is to describe an issue as a debate between two opposing sides: a good side and a bad side (or a for and an against side). Simplifying an issue in this way excludes other perspectives, leading audiences to feel they must agree with one side or the other.
In creating a dichotomy, a writer uses language strongly loaded with positive connotations to characterise their own viewpoint, and negative language to present the opposing view. Creating a dichotomy thus positions audiences to align themselves with those on the right side of the debate, including the writer.
Use of headings, subheadings and visual material
Breaking up a text into sections helps audiences absorb and navigate the information and ideas being presented. This can be especially important in spoken texts. Podcasts are often divided into segments, whilst someone delivering a speech might use signposts such as firstly, for example and in conclusion to help listeners follow how the argument unfolds.
The headline or title of a piece can summarise the writer's viewpoint or suggest their approach to the topic. Increasingly, headlines for online news articles pose questions, make provocative statements or spark curiosity. This encourages online readers to click on links to read full articles and spend more time on media companies' websites.
Subheadings break up longer texts and signal key points of argument. They create the impression that the writer is approaching the subject in a logical and systematic way, examining multiple aspects of an issue. The use of bullet points or lists can similarly suggest a logical and comprehensive approach.
The placement of images in relation to written text can contribute to the overall effect. A photograph can emphasise the emotive aspects of an issue, whilst graphs, charts or tables can imply that the writer's argument is based on sound evidence.
Selection of information
Writers include facts and details that support their argument and help them refute opposing arguments. Some selection of information is inevitable since it is never possible to include every fact or piece of evidence relevant to a debate. However, sometimes this selection process involves omitting relevant information that doesn't support the argument.
Example: Understanding Selective Information
A writer might declare that a council survey shows 80 per cent of respondents would like to use an app to access council services, and therefore the council has residents' support for developing such an app. However, they might omit the fact that the council only distributed the survey via text messages and social media platforms. As a result, those who tend not to use technology, and might be unlikely to wish to use an app, were effectively excluded from the survey.
Although when analysing argument and persuasive language you should generally focus on what is included rather than what is excluded, always be aware of how writers have selected their material. Thinking about what is omitted can be especially useful when developing your own viewpoint on an issue and evaluating the strengths and weaknesses of others' arguments.
Placement of rebuttal
Rebuttal is the use of argument and evidence to disprove an opposing viewpoint. A writer might devote considerable space to rebutting opposing arguments, or they might include very little explicit rebuttal.
Rebuttal is usually incorporated into the overall argument in one of three main ways: at the beginning, near the end or integrated throughout.
Including rebuttal at the beginning can pre-empt an audience's objections to the writer's arguments, positioning them to reject opposing viewpoints and accept the writer's conclusions. In debates, it is usual for a speaker to begin by rebutting the previous speaker's arguments before presenting their own.
Placing rebuttal towards the end (in longer texts) can suggest that opposing arguments are relatively minor and easily discredited by the reasons and evidence already presented. The rebuttal would probably be followed by a conclusion that emphatically restates the writer's main contention.
Incorporating rebuttal throughout enables the writer to take a considered approach, persuading readers through the accumulated weight of evidence and reason. The writer regularly compares and contrasts their viewpoint with opposing positions and arguments.
Cumulative effects
As well as analysing the effects of specific examples of persuasive techniques and structuring strategies, you need to discuss how these elements all work together. That is, as the argument develops, the supporting points, pieces of evidence and language choices combine to create cumulative or overall effects.
Example: How Techniques Work Together
In a text that begins by outlining a problem, language with negative associations might be used to describe current attempts to solve the problem. The writer could also use appeals to fear or to financial self-interest to position the audience to feel affected by the issue and interested to know if there is a solution. In this way, the writer prepares the audience for the next part of the argument - the proposed solution, which might be supported by statistics and logical reasoning. The tone could shift from alarmed (acknowledging the issue) to outraged (criticising attempts to solve it) to enthusiastic (presenting the writer's proposed solution). All of these strategies work together to leave the audience feeling the necessity of taking action and the validity of following the writer's proposal.
When analysing cumulative effects, consider:
- How the argument develops from beginning to end
- How different techniques support each other
- How tone and style shift throughout the text
- How structural choices reinforce language choices
- How visual elements (if present) complement the written text
- What overall impression the combination of techniques creates
Taking this holistic approach allows you to demonstrate sophisticated understanding of how persuasive texts work to influence readers.
Key Points to Remember:
- Writers use both language techniques and structuring strategies to persuade readers to agree with their viewpoint.
- Language techniques include devices such as appeals to various values, emotive language, metaphors, repetition and rhetorical questions.
- Structuring strategies involve decisions about how to organise the argument, including placement of the contention, order of points, and use of headings and visual material.
- Always analyse how techniques work in the specific context of the text you are examining, rather than just identifying techniques.
- Consider cumulative effects by examining how different persuasive elements work together throughout the text to influence readers.
- Understanding these techniques gives you the vocabulary and analytical tools needed to examine any persuasive text effectively.