Safety and Ethical Understanding (VCE SSCE Psychology): Revision Notes
Safety and Ethical Understanding
Understanding safety and ethical practices is essential when conducting psychological research. This involves both applying ethical concepts to analyse psychological issues in society and following specific ethical guidelines and safety procedures when planning and conducting investigations.
Historical context
Psychological and medical research have historically included some deeply unethical experiments. Beyond the notorious Nazi German and Japanese experiments of the twentieth century, there are many other examples, including within Australia. For instance, in 2000 the University of Adelaide apologised for scientific experiments conducted on Aboriginal peoples in the 1920s and 1930s that were deemed degrading and, in some cases, barbarous.
Several historical psychological studies that you may encounter in this course would be considered unethical by today's standards. These include the Little Albert studies, the Bobo doll experiment, the Stanford Prison experiment, and the Milgram experiment.
Whilst you won't be assessed on specific examples of unethical research, you may need to identify what makes certain research scenarios unethical. Understanding historical examples can help develop this skill.
Ethical concepts in psychological issues
Ethical understanding is essential not only for conducting research but also for evaluating psychological issues relevant to society. When investigating issues such as global mental health, it's important to consider government policies, socio-economic status, the relationship between mental health and poverty, human rights, funding, risks for children and youth, and the impact of the criminal justice system.
Five general ethical concepts guide the analysis of ethical and moral conduct in relation to psychological issues. These concepts are separate from the specific codes and guidelines that apply to conducting psychological investigations. The five ethical concepts are: integrity, justice, beneficence, non-maleficence and respect.
Integrity
Integrity involves the dedication to pursuing knowledge and understanding whilst honestly reporting all sources of information and findings. Whether results support or contradict initial expectations, researchers have an obligation to report them truthfully in a manner that permits scrutiny and contributes to public knowledge. Findings should be published even when they are negative or inconclusive.
When reporting investigation results, researchers should provide a complete and accurate representation of facts without manipulation, fabrication or misconduct. The actions of researchers and practising psychologists should align with their internal core values, and they should maintain accountability for their actions.
Example of Integrity Breach: The Diederik Stapel Case
In 2011, Dutch psychologist Diederik Stapel was found to have manipulated data and fabricated experiments that were used in at least 30 published, peer-reviewed papers. Following investigation of this case, it was recommended that research departments should include a 'research integrity' moderator to monitor for such behaviour.
Justice
Justice involves the duty to ensure that competing interests are evaluated fairly, that no particular group bears an unfair burden from an action, and that there is fair distribution and access to the benefits of an action.
Justice means ensuring the right to be treated fairly, such as equal access to psychological treatment regardless of age, place of residence, social status, culture or disability. However, treating all people equally is not always fair. Therefore, justice means ensuring people's differences are also accounted for.
Example of Justice in Practice: Accessibility Considerations
Providing all participants, including those who are blind or have low vision, with a written informed consent form would be 'equal', but providing participants with the form in Braille or having the information read out verbally would be considered fair.
There is a responsibility to ensure all people have the right to access advances in psychology, such as knowledge acquired from research and the distribution of benefits and resources. This might mean selecting an appropriate format for reporting research outcomes. Denying a person a benefit they are entitled to without good reason would be considered unjust.
The process of recruiting participants should be fair regarding the selection, exclusion and inclusion of categories of research participants, with no unfair burden placed on participants. For instance, some groups risk being exposed to 'over research' because only a small number of people form that group or because they are easily available, such as those confined to psychiatric hospitals, those who are terminally ill, or those from a small, minority ethnic group.
Beneficence and non-maleficence
Beneficence involves the dedication to maximising benefits and minimising risks and harms. This is important in psychology when taking a particular position or completing a course of action, such as a research investigation. A benefit is something of positive value, such as contributing to psychological knowledge and improving individual and societal wellbeing. It is important that all actions are in the best interest of others.
Non-maleficence means avoiding causing harm. Determining a position or conducting scientific research in psychology may lead to some degree of harm or discomfort, so it is necessary that possible harm resulting from any position or course of action is scientifically justifiable and is not disproportionate to the possible benefits.
Harm can include:
- Physical harm (such as injury)
- Psychological harm (such as distress)
- Social harm (such as discrimination)
- Economic harm (such as costs)
- Legal harm (such as criminal conduct)
The primary concern is to do no harm, and any acceptable level of harm must be kept to a minimum.
The two ethical concepts of beneficence and non-maleficence can be considered together, in an understanding that one must act in a manner that promotes the benefit to others whilst also minimising harm to others.
Before a research investigation starts, an assessment of risk is made. This includes determining the likelihood and severity of harm, and the short-term and longer-term risks and benefits. The researcher must always prioritise participants' wellbeing. These risks and benefits may affect the participants directly, but also their families, the wider community or particular groups they identify with.
To maintain ethical compliance, the benefit of the research must outweigh or justify any participant discomfort. For instance, a person with a severe form of an illness might choose to participate in a clinical trial for a new treatment, whereas a person with a less severe form might not. In a clinical example, a person considering electroconvulsive therapy for the treatment of major depression would weigh up the benefits of potentially reducing their symptoms against the risk of memory loss.
During an investigation, if the balance tips so that the benefits do not outweigh the risks, then the risks are no longer justified, and the research must be stopped and reassessed.
Respect
The ethical concept of respect involves considering the value of living things, giving due regard, and considering the capacity of living things to make their own decisions.
Consideration of the value of living things involves respecting the extent to which a person or animal has:
- Intrinsic value: value for its own sake, in its own right
- Instrumental value: value as a means to an end, resulting in some final intrinsic value
For instance, this would mean understanding that each person has worth in and of themselves, and that their value is not just as a participant in a study without any dignity.
Giving due regard to both an individual and the wider collective involves explicitly considering their welfare, liberty and autonomy, beliefs, perceptions, customs and cultural heritage. This means respecting a person's need to be treated in their best possible interest, according to their individual characteristics and with respect to their cultural sensitivities.
Researchers need to consider the capacity of living things to make their own decisions, such as a person determining their participation in research. When animals are involved, or when people have a diminished capacity to make their own decisions (such as due to age, intellectual ability or level of consciousness), they must be empowered where possible and protected as necessary.
Ethical guidelines in research investigations
In Australia, researchers using human participants in an investigation must follow ethical guidelines set out by the National Health and Medical Research Council (NHMRC) in their document the 'National Statement on Ethical Conduct in Human Research'. This ensures the protection and welfare of all participants in research.
Human research ethics committees are involved throughout all stages of an investigation to ensure that researchers follow the mandated ethical guidelines. Ethics committees are responsible for approving research before it begins. The committee considers the level of risk of harm to participants, including the likelihood and severity of harm. Research is ethically acceptable only when its potential benefits justify any risks in the research.
Once a proposal is accepted, an ethics committee will monitor the duration of the study to ensure the researchers continue to follow all ethical responsibilities.
A researcher must follow the NHMRC guidelines and ensure that their proposed research has merit and reflects the overarching ethical concepts of integrity, justice, beneficence, non-maleficence and respect.
Once an investigation begins, the researcher must follow several additional ethical guidelines that are specifically relevant to research, to ensure participants' rights are met whilst they are involved. These guidelines include confidentiality, voluntary participation, informed consent, withdrawal rights, use of deception and debriefing.
Confidentiality
Confidentiality means ensuring that participants remain anonymous and their personal information is kept private, protected and secure throughout the study. Participants have the right for their details to remain confidential.
For instance, a participant's name should not be included with their published results. Instead, participants may be de-identified and data should be coded to allow each participant to remain anonymous. The exception to this would be when consent is explicitly given to allow data to be shared, such as in video recordings where identity cannot be hidden. If researchers plan to share personal data, they should inform participants during the consent process and let them know how their data will be used.
Voluntary participation
Voluntary participation ensures that each participant freely agrees to participate in a study with no pressure or coercion. It is common and acceptable for participants to be paid or receive compensation for their involvement in a study if it is deemed proportionate to the burden of the research. However, the payment must not be used to persuade a person to participate or persuade them to take undue risks.
Additionally, participants must not be disadvantaged if they decide not to participate. For example, a university must not force students to be involved in a study in order to pass their university course.
Informed consent procedures
Informed consent procedures are conducted before a study begins, where participants agree to participate in the research after they have received all the details of the investigation. This includes information about the nature and purpose, methods of data collection and potential risks.
Participants usually receive this information in a written document that they must sign as their agreement to participate. Participant consent should be based on a sufficient understanding of their involvement requirements and the possibilities for psychological or physical risk.
Informed consent is also the stage when participants are told about their withdrawal rights and confidentiality rights, and a researcher must provide an opportunity for participants to discuss the provided information and ask questions.
Participants who are under the age of 18 or who lack the capacity to consent for themselves (such as someone with a severe intellectual disability) cannot legally give consent for themselves. They must have a parent or legal guardian read and sign the informed consent on their behalf. However, researchers must still attempt to obtain informed consent as far as practically possible from these groups.
In all cases, it is necessary for informed consent forms to be written in plain language that the participant can understand.
Withdrawal rights
Withdrawal rights ensure that participants are free to discontinue their involvement in a study without receiving a penalty. Once a participant begins a study, they cannot be forced to continue if they want to stop. They can withdraw their involvement during the study or withdraw their results after the study has concluded.
Withdrawal rights should be outlined to participants in the informed consent process so that they are aware of their rights before agreeing to begin the study.
Use of deception in research
Deception in research involves withholding the true nature of the study from participants if their knowledge of the true purpose may affect their behaviour and the subsequent validity of the investigation.
Sometimes it is necessary to not tell the participants exactly what is going to happen in a study. For instance, if you tell a group of children that their ability to follow the rules of a game is going to be measured, then this might cause the children to behave in a way that is different from normal. Instead, you could tell the children that the study will be measuring something else inconsequential, such as how often a particular score comes up.
Deception brings up issues about informed consent and is discouraged in psychological research. However, it is allowed if:
- The benefits are sufficient to justify the deception
- There is no alternative method
- There is no risk of harm to participants
- Debriefing procedures at the conclusion of the investigation clarify the true nature of the study and the reason for deception
Informed consent forms should also outline the possibility of the use of deception in the study.
Debriefing
Debriefing is conducted at the end of the study and is when participants are informed of the true aims, results and conclusions of the study. Debriefing includes answering any questions, clarifying misunderstandings or deception, and providing support to ensure no lasting harm occurs to participants.
During debriefing procedures, the participants are told of the findings and conclusions of the study and informed that they may have access to their own results. It is also an opportunity to provide participants with additional contact details if they want further information and to provide them with counselling services should they need them.
Research involving Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander peoples
In addition to the ethical guidelines already described in this section, any research involving Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander peoples should also follow additional guidelines to ensure their wellbeing and that they are also able to benefit from the research.
In 2018, the NHMRC developed the document 'Ethical Conduct in Research with Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander Peoples and Communities: Guidelines for Researchers and Stakeholders'. These guidelines define six core values: spirit and integrity, cultural continuity, equity, reciprocity, respect, and responsibility.
These values ensure that all research conducted with or for Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander peoples is conducted ethically, with the aim of improving the way all researchers work with First Australians, developing and/or strengthening their research capabilities, and enhancing their rights as researchers, research partners, collaborators and participants in research.
Additionally, dedicated ethics committees representing Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander focused organisations are required to oversee these studies.
Safety in research investigations
In addition to following all ethical considerations, when planning and conducting investigations at school, you must demonstrate safe laboratory practices, follow occupational health and safety guidelines, and account for risks by using risk assessments that are informed by safety data sheets.
Occupational health and safety
Occupational health and safety (OHS) refers to issues of health, safety and welfare that must be protected in a workplace. When conducting investigations in VCE Psychology, you should adhere to the rules and guidelines provided by your teacher to ensure that everyone remains safe.
OHS guidelines should be at the forefront of risk management when planning an investigation.
Risk assessment
Risk assessment is a process that considers, identifies and reduces physical and psychological risk. As with research conducted in real life, teachers and students conducting practical investigations in schools must ensure that there is no harm to participants or other people involved.
A risk assessment allows you to assess the likelihood of each possible risk and its consequences before identifying a way to control the risk. Risks could involve things such as:
- Hazards in the physical surroundings
- Hazards formed from the activity or equipment
- Hazardous substances such as chemicals
Safety data sheets
When you are using chemical substances, you should review the relevant safety data sheet (SDS) as part of the risk assessment. SDSs are documents that provide important information about the substance, such as its ingredients, precautionary statements and first aid measures.
Applying ethical guidelines: an example
Worked Example: Ethical Guidelines in a Sharing Study
Consider a researcher investigating whether primary school children who have siblings are more likely to share their toys and games with other children compared to children who do not have any siblings.
| Ethical guideline | Not followed correctly | Adhered to correctly |
|---|---|---|
| Confidentiality | Publishing results with children's full names attached | De-identifying participants and coding data to maintain anonymity |
| Voluntary participation | Requiring all children in a class to participate | Allowing children to choose whether to participate without penalty |
| Informed consent | Starting the study without informing parents | Providing parents with full information about the study and obtaining written consent |
| Withdrawal rights | Forcing children to complete the study once started | Allowing children to stop participating at any point without consequence |
| Deception | Not telling children the true purpose when necessary for validity | Using minimal deception only when justified and explaining it during debriefing |
| Debriefing | Ending the study without further explanation | Informing children and parents of the true aims, answering questions, and providing support |
Remember!
Key Points to Remember:
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Five ethical concepts guide the analysis of psychological issues: integrity (honest reporting), justice (fair treatment), beneficence (maximising benefits), non-maleficence (avoiding harm), and respect (valuing living things and their decision-making capacity).
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Ethical guidelines protect participants in research: confidentiality, voluntary participation, informed consent, withdrawal rights, use of deception (when justified), and debriefing.
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Ethics committees must approve and monitor all research involving human participants to ensure the benefits justify any risks.
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Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander research requires additional ethical guidelines based on six core values: spirit and integrity, cultural continuity, equity, reciprocity, respect, and responsibility.
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Safety practices are essential in all investigations, including following OHS guidelines, conducting risk assessments, and consulting safety data sheets (SDS) when using hazardous substances.