Grammar (AQA A-Level English Language): Revision Notes
Grammar
Grammar refers to how individual words are structured and combined to create meaningful sentences. Understanding grammar is essential for analysing texts and recognising the effects that different grammatical choices create.
Key grammatical features
When analysing grammar in a text, you should consider a range of features, including:
- Word classes: nouns, verbs, adjectives, adverbs, pronouns, conjunctions, prepositions and determiners
- Verb features: main and auxiliary verbs, tense, modal auxiliaries, active and passive voice
- Sentence types: declarative, interrogative, imperative, exclamatory
- Sentence complexity: minor, simple, compound, complex sentences, and their relative length
- Unusual word order: deviations from standard subject-verb-object patterns
- Standard or non-standard forms: formal versus informal grammatical structures
- Other aspects: ellipsis, pre- and post-modification, subject/object positioning, pronoun use, person, agreement, content and function words, noun phrase complexity
- Word structure: prefixes and suffixes
Each of these features can be analysed to understand how meaning is constructed and what effects are created for the reader or listener.
Word classes
Word classes (also called parts of speech) are the fundamental building blocks of English sentences. Knowing these eight different types enables you to analyse how they function within texts and what effects they create.
Nouns
A noun is a naming word that identifies a person, place, thing, idea, living creature, quality or action. There are two main categories: proper nouns and common nouns.
Proper nouns name specific people, places or things and always begin with a capital letter (such as Manchester, Sarah, or Thursday). Common nouns are more general and can be further divided into three types.
- Concrete nouns: physical objects you can see, touch or experience (such as table, book, dog)
- Abstract nouns: ideas, qualities or concepts that cannot be physically touched (such as happiness, time, love)
- Collective nouns: groups or collections of things (such as team, flock, government)
Understanding the type of noun used in a text helps you identify what the writer is focusing on and whether they are dealing with tangible objects or abstract concepts.
Adjectives
Adjectives are descriptive words that modify nouns by providing additional information about them. They tell us something specific about the noun they describe, such as its size, colour, quality, or emotional impact. For example: big, yellow, thin, amazing, beautiful, quick, important.
Adjectives are powerful tools in creating imagery and establishing tone. Writers may use multiple adjectives to build up detailed descriptions, or they may use evaluative adjectives to express opinions and influence how readers perceive something.
Verbs
Verbs are words that describe either an action (doing something) or a state (being something). They are essential components of every sentence. You need to understand several aspects of verbs:
- Main verbs: carry the primary meaning of the action or state
- Auxiliary verbs: help the main verb to express tense, mood or voice
- Primary verbs: be, have, do
- Modal auxiliaries: express possibility, obligation, necessity (covered in detail below)
- Active voice: the subject performs the action
- Passive voice: the subject receives the action
The choice of verb type affects how direct or indirect a statement feels and where emphasis is placed in the sentence. Active voice creates directness, while passive voice can make statements feel more formal or impersonal.
Adverbs
Adverbs are words that typically modify verbs by providing information about how, when or where an action occurs. Many adverbs end in the suffix -ly, though not all do. Examples include: slowly, intelligently, well, yesterday, tomorrow, here, everywhere.
Adverbs add precision and detail to sentences. They can intensify or diminish the force of a verb, establish time frames, or locate actions in space. When analysing texts, consider how adverbs affect the pace, tone and clarity of the writing.
Pronouns
Pronouns are used in place of nouns to avoid repetitive language. They refer back to a noun that has already been mentioned or is understood from context. Common pronouns include: I, you, he, she, it, we, they.
Pronouns create cohesion in texts by linking ideas without constant repetition. They can also establish perspective (first person, second person, third person) and affect the relationship between writer and reader.
Prepositions
A preposition typically appears before a noun, pronoun or noun phrase and indicates relationships between elements in a sentence. They often express spatial or temporal relationships. Examples include: on, in, by, with, under, through, at.
Prepositions join parts of sentences together and establish clear connections between ideas, objects and actions. They are essential for creating precise, unambiguous meaning.
Conjunctions (connectives)
Conjunctions are connecting words that join two words, phrases or sentences together. Coordinating conjunctions include: but, so, and, because, or. These create links between ideas and help structure complex thoughts.
There are also subordinating conjunctions (such as which, who, although, despite, if, since) that introduce dependent clauses in complex sentences. The choice of conjunction affects how ideas relate to each other - whether they are being added, contrasted or explained.
Determiners
Determiners are words that come before nouns and refer to them directly, helping to specify which thing or how many things are being discussed. The most common determiner is the, known as the definite article. The indefinite articles are a and an.
Other determiners include possessive determiners (my, your, his), demonstrative determiners (this, that, these, those), and quantifiers (some, many, few). Determiners help establish specificity and clarify exactly what is being referred to.
Modal auxiliary verbs
Modal verbs are a special category of auxiliary verbs that express ideas such as possibility, intention, obligation and necessity. The main modal verbs are: Will, Shall, May/Might, Would, Can/Could, Must, Should, Ought to.
Modal verbs are distinctive because they are not used to discuss things that definitively exist or events that have definitely occurred. Instead, they express uncertainty, hypothetical situations or conditional meanings.
These meanings can be grouped into two categories:
- Degrees of certainty: expressing certainty, probability, possibility or impossibility
- Obligation/freedom to act: expressing permission, lack of permission, ability or obligation
Modal verbs function differently from other verbs. They help other verbs to express meaning, but have no meaning by themselves.
Modal Verb Example: Expressing Conditionality
The modal verb would can be used to express ideas about the past, present and future:
"I would have told you, if you had wanted me to"
This demonstrates how modals express conditionality and hypothetical situations rather than definite facts.
It is important to recognise that modal verbs modify the strength and certainty of statements. A sentence using must feels more forceful than one using might, even if discussing the same action.
Sentence types
There are four main sentence types in English, each serving different communicative purposes. The first type, declarative sentences, is the most commonly used.
Declarative sentences
A declarative sentence makes a statement or declares a fact, arrangement or opinion. These sentences can be either positive or negative and always end with a full stop. Declarative sentences are the standard form for conveying information.
Declarative Sentence Examples:
- I'll meet you at the train station (arrangement)
- The sun rises in the East (fact)
- He doesn't get up early (negative statement)
These sentences form the backbone of most writing, establishing facts, describing events and expressing ideas in a straightforward manner.
Imperative sentences
The imperative form expresses commands or, sometimes, requests. Imperative sentences have no visible subject because 'you' is the implied subject. These sentences end with either a full stop or an exclamation mark, depending on the force of the command.
Imperative Sentence Examples:
- Open the door (command)
- Pick up that mess! (forceful command)
- Finish your homework! (instruction)
Imperatives create directness and can feel forceful or instructive. They place the reader or listener in the position of being told what to do, which can be authoritative or friendly depending on context.
Interrogative sentences
The interrogative form asks a question and always ends with a question mark. These sentences invite a response and create engagement with the reader or listener.
Interrogative Sentence Examples:
- How long have you lived in France?
- When does the bus leave?
- Do you enjoy listening to classical music?
Interrogative sentences can be used to seek information, challenge ideas, or create rhetorical effects. In persuasive writing, rhetorical questions (questions not requiring an answer) can be particularly effective.
Exclamatory sentences
The exclamatory form emphasises a statement by adding an exclamation mark. These sentences express strong emotion, surprise or emphasis and can be based on either declarative or imperative structures.
Exclamatory Sentence Examples:
- Hurry up!
- That sounds fantastic!
- I can't believe you said that!
Exclamatory sentences convey heightened emotion and intensity. They are less common in formal writing but frequently appear in informal contexts, dialogue and persuasive texts.
Sentence complexity
Beyond understanding the four sentence types, you need to recognise how sentences are structured. All sentence types can be categorised as simple, compound or complex.
Simple sentences
Simple sentences contain no coordinating conjunctions (and, but, or, etc.). They consist of a single independent clause with one main idea. This does not mean they are short or basic - simple sentences can be quite long and sophisticated.
Simple Sentence Examples:
- Jack ate his dinner quickly
- Peter and Sue visited the museum last Saturday
- Are you coming to the party?
Simple sentences create clarity and directness. They can be used for emphasis or to create a punchy, impactful rhythm in writing. A series of simple sentences can create a staccato effect.
Compound sentences
Compound sentences contain two independent clauses (statements that could stand alone) connected by a coordinating conjunction such as and, but or or. Both clauses have equal grammatical weight.
Compound Sentence Examples:
- I wanted to watch TV, but it was late
- I went shopping and my wife went to her classes
- The company had an excellent year, so they gave everyone a bonus
Compound sentences allow writers to join related ideas together smoothly. They create a sense of balance and can show relationships between ideas such as contrast, addition or consequence.
Complex sentences
Complex sentences have an independent main clause and at least one dependent (subordinate) clause. The clauses are joined by a subordinating conjunction such as which, who, although, despite, if or since. The subordinate clause cannot stand alone as a complete sentence.
Complex Sentence Examples:
- My daughter, who was late for class, arrived shortly after the bell rang
- Although it was difficult, the class passed the test with excellent marks
Complex sentences allow for sophisticated expression of ideas with nuanced relationships. They can show cause and effect, provide additional information, or establish conditions. Complex sentences are characteristic of more formal, academic writing.
Exam Tip
When analysing texts, identify the sentence types and complexity levels used. Consider their effects:
- Do short simple sentences create impact?
- Do complex sentences suggest careful, thoughtful writing?
- Does variety in sentence structure maintain reader interest?
Always link your observations to the text's purpose and audience.
Key Points to Remember:
- Grammar is about how words are structured and arranged in sentences to create meaning
- The eight word classes (nouns, verbs, adjectives, adverbs, pronouns, prepositions, conjunctions, determiners) are the building blocks of sentences
- Modal auxiliary verbs express possibility, necessity, obligation and certainty rather than definite facts
- There are four sentence types: declarative (statements), imperative (commands), interrogative (questions) and exclamatory (emphasis)
- Sentences can be simple (one clause), compound (two equal clauses joined by coordinating conjunctions) or complex (main clause plus subordinate clause joined by subordinating conjunctions)
- Always consider the effects of grammatical choices when analysing texts - why has the writer chosen this structure and what impact does it create?