Accent and Dialect (AQA A-Level English Language): Revision Notes
Accent and dialect
Understanding accent and dialect
When studying language diversity, it is essential to understand the distinction between accent and dialect. These two terms are often confused, but they refer to different aspects of language variation.
Understanding the difference between accent and dialect is fundamental to studying language variation. While they are related, they operate at different levels of language structure.
Accent refers to the way words are pronounced. It relates specifically to phonological features - the sounds that speakers make when they speak. Every speaker has an accent, whether regional or not. Accent is about pronunciation only, not vocabulary or grammar.
Dialect is a much broader term. It refers to a variety of language that is distinctive to a particular region or social group. Dialect includes not just pronunciation (accent), but also vocabulary (lexical features) and grammar (grammatical features). When we talk about someone speaking in a particular dialect, we are referring to their complete language system, including their choice of words, sentence structures, and pronunciation.
Regional variation
Received Pronunciation and Standard English
Received Pronunciation (RP) is an accent that has historically been regarded as prestigious in British society. The term refers to an accent that was socially accepted and approved of, particularly in official and formal contexts. RP is sometimes called a non-regional accent because it is not tied to a specific geographical area - it can be heard throughout the UK and is not linked to a particular region. However, it tends to be associated with higher social classes and privileged educational backgrounds.
The term Standard English is different from RP. Standard English refers to a language system that serves as an agreed common form of English, particularly for formal communication. It is primarily concerned with the writing system and grammatical structures considered appropriate for formal contexts. In many spoken situations, non-standard forms are perfectly acceptable and appropriate - for example, in text messages, casual conversation, or regional contexts.
It is a misconception to think that Standard English is the only 'correct' form of English. Standard English is simply one variety among many, which has been selected for formal and official use.
An important point to remember is that regional speech features are different from the natural features of spoken language that everyone uses. All speakers, regardless of their accent or dialect, use features such as ellipsis, fillers, and informal constructions in everyday conversation. These are characteristics of spoken language, not markers of regional variation.
Prescriptivism vs descriptivism
Because people often make judgements about language use, there is a tendency to describe regional varieties using terms like 'right', 'wrong', 'correct', and 'incorrect'. As linguistic descriptivists, we should avoid these kinds of prescriptive, judgemental comments.
Prescriptivism is an approach that attempts to establish rules about how language 'should' be used. Prescriptivists often view certain forms of language as superior to others and try to enforce standards of correctness.
Descriptivism is the approach taken by linguists. Rather than judging whether language use is 'right' or 'wrong', descriptivists observe and describe how language is actually used by real speakers in real contexts. This approach recognizes that all varieties of English are valid and valuable systems of communication.
For your A-Level studies, you should adopt a descriptivist perspective and avoid making judgemental comments about regional varieties of English. All language varieties are equally valid and rule-governed.
Types of language variation
Lexical and semantic variation
Regional varieties demonstrate considerable differences in vocabulary and word meanings. Lexical variation refers to the different words used in different regions to describe the same thing. Semantic variation occurs when the same word is used to mean different things in different regions.
Lexical Variation Examples:
Different parts of the UK have different words for the same items:
- Bread rolls: bap, barm, roll, cob, batch
- Attractive: fit, lush, peng
Semantic Variation Example:
The word 'right' provides a good example - in some dialects, particularly in Yorkshire, 'right' can be used not only to indicate direction or agreement, but also as an intensifier meaning 'very' (as in 'it were right good'). This demonstrates how a single word can carry different meanings depending on regional context.
This variation can sometimes cause communication difficulties, but it also enriches the English language and reflects the diverse identities and cultures across Britain.
Grammatical variation
Linguists also describe regional variation according to differences in grammar and syntax. Attitudes towards dialect grammar are often quite negative, with comments such as 'standards are slipping' frequently heard. However, when we examine the history of dialect grammar, we can see that Standard English itself is simply a dialect that happened to become the approved and prestigious form. It is impossible to justify using terms like 'right' and 'wrong' when discussing regional variation - all grammatical systems are equally valid and rule-governed.
Regional dialects commonly show variation in several grammatical features:
Prepositions: Different regions use prepositions differently. For example, in some northern regions of England, the preposition 'while' is often used to replace the Standard English 'until', and phrases such as 'I'm working two while six' are commonly heard.
Pronouns: Pronoun usage varies between dialects. Some dialects use 'us' as a first person singular pronoun where Standard English would use 'me' (as in 'Give us a biscuit').
When discussing grammatical variation, it's important to recognize that these are systematic differences, not errors. Each dialect has its own internal logic and consistent rules.
Verb forms: The verb 'to be' shows considerable variation, with different dialects using 'was' and 'were' with different pronouns in ways that differ from Standard English patterns.
Determiners: These are words that help to determine what a noun refers to. They can indicate quantity ('some', 'many'), definiteness ('the' or 'a'), possession ('my', 'our'), or demonstrativeness ('these', 'those'). Demonstratives are also called deictics or pointing words. Regional dialects often use determiners differently from Standard English - for example, using 'them' instead of 'those' ('them people').
Double negatives: Some dialects regularly use multiple negation ('I never saw nothing'), which is considered non-standard but is perfectly logical and systematic within those dialect systems.
Relativisers: These are words (also called relative pronouns) such as 'which', 'who', and 'that', often used at the beginning of subordinate clauses. Some dialects use 'what' as a relativiser instead of 'that' or 'which' to join clauses.
Accent variation
Accent variation concerns the way pronunciations differ between speakers, or the variations a single speaker might produce in different contexts. Phonological variation deals with the use of accent features, and there is a vast amount of variation in the types of vowels and consonants used in British accents.
Linguists use the phonemic alphabet to transcribe the phonemes or sounds that speakers make. The phonemic alphabet is based on the RP accent, which means other accents are described as being different from RP.
This can be problematic for regional speakers because it positions RP as the 'standard' against which all other accents are measured. It is important to treat regional varieties fairly and recognize that no accent is inherently superior to another.
Some common accent features that vary regionally include:
Glottal stops: These occur when the airflow is completely stopped at the glottis (the opening between the vocal cords). In many accents, particularly urban British accents, glottal stops replace the /t/ sound in certain positions within words.
Post-vocalic /r/: This refers to the pronunciation of /r/ sounds that appear after vowels. In RP and many southern British accents, post-vocalic /r/ is not pronounced (as in 'car' or 'mother'), but in many regional accents, including Scottish, Irish, and some south-western English accents, the /r/ is clearly articulated.
The 'g-dropping' misconception:
The substitution of /ŋ/ for /n/ in some accents (as in 'giving' becoming 'givin') is often described negatively as 'g-dropping'. However, this terminology is inaccurate because for many speakers, there was no /g/ sound there in the first place. It is problematic that people often think about written language rather than spoken language when discussing differences, which only adds to negative attitudes about regional varieties.
People often have very strong and negative attitudes towards accents. For example, the substitution of the final /ŋ/ for a /n/ in words such as 'giving' is often described as sloppy or lazy speech. These attitudes reveal social prejudices more than they reveal anything meaningful about the language itself.
Language and social class
There has been extensive research into the relationship between social class and language use. Early studies, such as Labov's New York Department Store Study (1966), demonstrated that differences in the production of the post-vocalic 'r' could be linked to social class. In his Norwich Study (1974), Trudgill found a link between a speaker's social class and the pronunciation of nasal and velar nasal sounds.
Early studies such as these relied on a categorizing system for social class that would now be considered rather outdated. They used traditional social class categories that were quite rigid and simplistic.
Linguistic research has moved on since the 1970s, and there are now more sophisticated methods of establishing social class. Modern approaches use tools such as The Great British Class Calculator and take into account multiple factors including household income, the kinds of people you mix with, and the cultural activities you engage in.
It is clear that while class may be a factor that has some influence on the language we use, it is impossible to say that one factor alone, such as class or accent, determines the way we speak.
Social networks theory
Milroy's Belfast study (1987) adopted a different approach based on the theory of social networks. A social network is a network of relations between people in their membership of different groups.
Two key concepts in social network analysis are:
Density: In studies of social networks, density refers to the number of connections that people have. A high-density network means people know many of the same individuals.
Multiplexity: This refers to the number of ways in which two individuals might relate to each other - for example, as friends, workmates, and family members. High multiplexity means people connect in multiple different ways.
Milroy's research showed that individuals with high-density, multiplex social networks tended to use more localized, non-standard linguistic features, while those with looser, less multiplex networks showed more variation and movement towards standard forms.
Communities of practice
The most recent way of thinking about language and social identity takes the approach that the social practices we engage in have the most significant influence on our language use. Work by researchers such as Eckert on American high school students has been particularly influential. Other studies, such as Moore's Bolton study, follow this community of practice approach, which focuses on how people use language to construct and perform different social identities in different contexts.
Key studies and theories
Several important studies and theoretical concepts are essential for understanding accent, dialect, and social class:
- Labov's New York Department Store Study (1966) and Martha's Vineyard Study (1963)
- Cheshire's Reading Study (1982)
- Trudgill's Norwich Study (1974)
- Work on Multicultural London English - a recent variety combining elements of the language of different ethnic groups, particularly Afro-Caribbean English. The variety arose in London but has spread to different parts of the UK
- Work on Estuary English - a recent accent variety used in south-east England which combines RP with some aspects of regional southern accents. The term refers to the Thames estuary area
- Work on dialect levelling - the way in which dialect terms have been dropping out of use
- Giles' work on attitudes to accents (1970s) and his matched guise technique tests. The matched guise technique is an experimental method where a single actor puts on a different accent for different audiences but keeps the content of the speech the same. This allows researchers to isolate accent as a variable
- Giles' Communication Accommodation Theory (CAT) and his ideas about convergence and divergence. Convergence means changing one's language to move towards that of another individual, while divergence means changing one's language to move away from that of another individual
- Bernstein's Restricted and Elaborated Code theory. Bernstein proposed (though this is much disputed) that middle-class speakers use context-free, complex forms of language (elaborated code), while working-class speakers use context-based, limited forms of language (restricted code)
- Milroy and Milroy's Belfast Studies (1978–)
- Lave and Wenger's concept of a Community of Practice (1991)
Prestige
Two important concepts in understanding attitudes towards accent and dialect are overt prestige and covert prestige.
Overt prestige refers to status that is publicly acknowledged and recognized. RP, for example, has overt prestige - it is widely recognized as a prestigious accent associated with education, authority, and social status.
Covert prestige refers to status gained from peer group recognition rather than public acknowledgment. Regional accents and dialects often carry covert prestige within local communities. Speakers may value their regional accent because it signals group membership and local identity, even though it may not have overt prestige in wider society.
Understanding the distinction between overt and covert prestige helps explain why speakers might maintain regional features despite social pressure to adopt prestige forms - their accent carries value within their community.
Research on language and identity: Llamas' Middlesbrough study (2000)
Llamas investigated variation and change in the dialect of Middlesbrough, a town in the north-east of England. She examined the variation of the phonemes /p/, /t/, /k/, which could be pronounced in three ways:
- As full plosives (the RP pronunciation)
- As glottalised stops (the RP pronunciation with a slight glottalisation)
- As full glottal stops (complete closure of the glottis so no sound occurs)
Llamas' Middlesbrough Study: Key Findings
What was studied: Llamas examined how speakers in Middlesbrough pronounced the phonemes /p/, /t/, and /k/.
Important findings:
- Age and gender were significant factors influencing pronunciation
- Females used the glottal stop the most - contradicting commonly held views that glottal stops are used mostly by working-class male speakers
- Younger speakers used the glottalised and glottal variants more than older speakers
- Younger Middlesbrough speakers might be converging with areas further north in Tyneside
- This was linked to speakers' attitudes towards different parts of the North-East and their sense of identity
Conclusions: Regional identity in Middlesbrough was a fluid concept. The speakers were constructing their identity through variations in the production of these phonemes. The glottalised stop chosen by younger people expressed their identity with the North-East region.
This study is significant because it shows how:
- Language variation is linked to identity
- Younger speakers may drive language change
- Regional identity is fluid and constructed through language choices
- Traditional assumptions about accent features (such as glottal stops being working-class male features) may not always hold true
Exam tips
Key Strategies for Exam Success:
- Select research carefully that will help you address the question most effectively
- Draw from different areas of diversity and change, not just from a single topic
- Read the question carefully and identify the areas that are most relevant
- There is no set way to answer any question, so take time to plan carefully
- Ensure you can use theoretical concepts to form a clear argument
- Be prepared to add examples to show the examiner you understand different kinds of language variation
- Use a descriptivist approach and avoid making judgemental comments about language varieties
Remember!
Key Points to Remember:
- Accent refers only to pronunciation, while dialect includes vocabulary, grammar, and pronunciation
- RP (Received Pronunciation) is a non-regional accent historically associated with high social status
- Standard English is primarily a written form and the agreed standard for formal contexts
- Take a descriptivist approach - avoid using terms like 'right', 'wrong', 'correct', or 'incorrect' when discussing regional varieties
- Regional variation occurs at multiple levels: lexical (vocabulary), semantic (meaning), grammatical (syntax), and phonological (pronunciation)
- Social class influences language use, but modern research shows that social networks and communities of practice are also important factors
- Language variation is closely linked to identity - speakers use language to construct and express their social and regional identities
- Understanding key studies (Labov, Trudgill, Milroy, Llamas) helps you analyze language diversity effectively