International Englishes (AQA A-Level English Language): Revision Notes
International Englishes
Introduction
The way English has spread around the world and developed new forms in different countries is a fascinating aspect of language change and diversity. When English arrived in various territories through colonisation, trade, and cultural influence, it didn't remain static. Instead, it adapted and evolved, creating distinct varieties that reflect local languages, cultures, and identities.
This topic is highly relevant for your exam, as International Englishes can appear in both Question 1 and Question 2 in Section A of Paper 2, and may also form the basis of language discourse texts in Section B.
What are World Englishes?
World Englishes refers to the different varieties of English used across the globe, particularly in countries that were formerly colonised by Britain, such as India, Singapore, Nigeria, and Jamaica. These nations have developed their own versions of Standard English that reflect their linguistic contexts and cultural identities.
World Englishes aren't simply 'incorrect' forms of British English. They are legitimate, rule-governed varieties with their own systems and standards.
These varieties have their own:
- Phonological features (pronunciation patterns)
- Vocabulary choices (lexical variations)
- Grammatical structures (syntactic rules)
- Orthographical conventions (spelling preferences)
The spread of English globally
English became an international language for several interconnected reasons:
Historical factors: The British Empire's colonial expansion from the 17th to 20th centuries established English in territories across Africa, Asia, the Caribbean, and Oceania.
Economic power: Britain's industrial dominance, followed by America's economic influence in the 20th and 21st centuries, made English the language of international business and trade.
Cultural influence: The global reach of British and American media, entertainment, and popular culture spread English language and values worldwide.
Academic significance: English became the dominant language of scientific research, higher education, and academic publishing.
Political reasons: English served as a neutral administrative language in multilingual nations, and became the working language of many international organisations.
Technology and the internet: The development of the internet and digital technologies, predominantly in English-speaking contexts, established English as the primary language of online communication.
Models for understanding International Englishes
Linguists have created several models to help us understand the relationships between different varieties of English around the world. These models are valuable for conceptualising how English has diversified globally and can strengthen your analysis in exam responses.
McArthur's circle of World English
McArthur's model presents World Standard English at the centre, with various regional Standard Englishes radiating outward in segments. The model includes:
- British and Irish Standard English (incorporating varieties like Scottish English, Welsh English, Irish English, Hiberno-English)
- American Standard English (including Northern, Southern, Midland varieties, Black English Vernacular, Appalachian, Cajun English)
- Canadian Standard English (with Quebec English and Newfoundland English)
- Caribbean Standard English
- West, East and Southern African Standard English (encompassing Nigerian English, Ghanaian English, Kenyan English, and others)
- South Asian Standardizing English (including Indian English, Pakistani English, Bangladeshi English, Sri Lankan English)
- East Asian Standardizing English (covering varieties in China, Japan, Korea, Hong Kong, Singapore, Philippines)
- Australian, New Zealand and South Pacific Standard English (including Maori English, Aboriginal English)
This model emphasises that no single variety sits at the top of a hierarchy. Instead, different Standard Englishes exist alongside each other, all connected to a common World Standard English core.
Kachru's circles model
Braj Kachru's influential model organises countries into three concentric circles based on how English functions in each location and the number of speakers:
The Inner Circle represents countries where English is the native language for the majority of the population:
- USA (317,853,000 speakers)
- UK (63,705,000 speakers)
- Canada (35,345,000 speakers)
- Australia (23,453,000 speakers)
- New Zealand (4,525,000 speakers)
These are traditionally English-speaking nations where English is the first language of most citizens.
The Outer Circle includes countries where English serves as an official or important second language, typically due to colonial history:
- India (1,242,000,000 speakers)
- Nigeria (173,620,000 speakers)
- Pakistan (186,317,000 speakers)
- Bangladesh (154,700,000 speakers)
- Philippines (99,903,000 speakers)
- Kenya (44,354,000 speakers)
- Tanzania (44,929,000 speakers)
- Malaysia (30,042,000 speakers)
- Ghana (25,200,000 speakers)
- Sri Lanka (20,278,000 speakers)
- Zambia (14,580,000 speakers)
- Singapore (5,400,000 speakers)
In these nations, English functions as an institutionalised second language, often used in government, education, and business.
The Expanding Circle encompasses countries where English is learnt as a foreign language for international communication:
- China (1,363,840,000 speakers)
- Indonesia (247,425,000 speakers)
- Japan (127,120,000 speakers)
- Turkey (146,279,000 speakers)
- Egypt (86,270,000 speakers)
- Korea (50,220,000 speakers)
- Saudi Arabia (29,995,000 speakers)
- Nepal (26,495,000 speakers)
- Taiwan (23,379,000 speakers)
- Zimbabwe (12,974,000 speakers)
- Israel (8,158,000 speakers)
In Expanding Circle countries, English doesn't have official status but is widely taught and used for international purposes.
Why Kachru's model is preferred: Many linguists favour Kachru's model because it accounts for the different relationships countries have with English. It recognises that English serves different functions (native language, official language, foreign language) in different contexts. However, some critics argue that the model doesn't adequately represent varying levels of English proficiency within the same country.
Schneider's dynamic model
Edgar Schneider proposed a developmental model that explains how varieties of International English evolve over time through five distinct phases:
Phase 1: Foundation - English arrives in a territory through colonisation or trade. Initial contact between English speakers and local populations begins.
Phase 2: Exonormative stabilisation - The variety looks outward to British or American English as the standard model. Speakers aspire to match these external norms.
Phase 3: Nativisation - The variety begins developing its own distinctive features. Local linguistic influences become more prominent as English adapts to its new environment.
Phase 4: Endonormative stabilisation - The variety establishes its own internal norms and standards. Speakers accept local forms as legitimate rather than viewing them as deviations from British or American English.
Phase 5: Differentiation - The variety continues to diversify, potentially developing regional sub-varieties within the country.
Value of Schneider's model: This model is particularly useful because it recognises that varieties of English are not static. They develop and change over time, moving through predictable stages. It explains how varieties can shift from looking to external standards (exonormative) to establishing their own norms (endonormative), which helps us understand the evolution and legitimacy of different World Englishes.
English as a lingua franca (ELF)
Understanding ELF
English as a lingua franca (ELF) refers to the use of English as a contact language or bridging language between speakers who do not share a first language. This is distinct from World Englishes - ELF is not a geographical variety but rather a functional form of English used in specific communicative contexts.
Practical Example of ELF
When a Spanish businessperson communicates with a Japanese colleague using English, neither using English as their mother tongue, they are using ELF. English serves as their common ground for communication.
Why English became the dominant lingua franca
Several factors explain why English, rather than another language, became the world's most common lingua franca:
Historical position: Britain's colonial history established English in diverse territories across multiple continents, creating a foundation for global English use.
Academic dominance: English became the primary language of international scholarly communication, research publication, and higher education, making it essential for academics worldwide.
Economic power: The economic influence of English-speaking nations, particularly the USA, made English valuable for international business, finance, and trade.
Cultural reach: British and American cultural products - films, music, television, literature - spread English language and idioms globally.
Political practicality: In international diplomacy and global organisations, English often serves as a neutral or practical choice for multilingual communication.
Internet and technology: The digital revolution occurred primarily in English-speaking contexts, establishing English as the dominant language of the internet, software, and digital communication.
Linguistic features of ELF
ELF is not simply 'bad English' or 'broken English'. It has identifiable linguistic characteristics that researchers have documented. Jennifer Jenkins and Barbara Seidlhofer, among other linguists, have identified common features:
Grammatical Features of ELF
- Dropping the third person -s in verbs: She walk, He run (rather than 'She walks', 'He runs')
- Omitting determiners: We saw many animal there (rather than 'We saw many animals there')
- Omitting plural endings: Put package down (rather than 'Put packages down')
Phonological Features of ELF
- Phonological substitution: pronouncing 'this' as 'dis', or using local pronunciation patterns that aid clarity
Pragmatic Features of ELF
- Use of invariant tag questions: They play well, isn't it? (using the same tag question regardless of the main verb)
These features make communication more efficient and reduce potential misunderstandings between speakers from different linguistic backgrounds. They represent simplification and regularisation of English grammar, not mistakes or errors.
Debates about International English
International Englishes remain a contentious topic in linguistics and beyond. Understanding these debates will strengthen your analytical responses in the exam.
Control and ownership of English
The debate: Some argue that England or Britain has 'lost control' of English as it spreads globally and develops in new ways.
Arguments for:
- Language naturally evolves beyond its origins when adopted by diverse communities
- If English is used globally, it belongs to all its speakers, not just native speakers
- The linguist Mario Saraceni argues that the concept of an 'umbilical cord' between Britain and English is unhelpful, as is the notion of 'ownership' over any language
Arguments against:
- People often have strong emotional connections to language as part of their identity
- It's understandable that some British speakers might feel concerned seeing English used in unfamiliar ways
- The question of whether England ever truly had 'control' over English is debatable
Status of different varieties
The debate: Are International Englishes 'inferior versions' of British English?
Arguments for linguistic equality:
- All language varieties are rule-governed systems worthy of respect
- Describing varieties as 'inferior' reflects prejudice rather than linguistic reality
- Different varieties serve their communities' communicative needs effectively
Arguments for standard models:
- Some argue maintaining standards helps preserve clarity and mutual intelligibility
- Concerns about subordinating British language and culture to external influences
Standardisation versus diversity
The debate: Should there be a single form of Standard English used by all speakers worldwide?
Arguments for a global standard:
- Would improve international communication and reduce misunderstandings
- Could simplify language learning and teaching
Arguments for maintaining diversity:
- Different varieties reflect cultural identities and linguistic heritage
- Language diversity is valuable and enriching
- Who would decide which standard to adopt?
- Attempting to impose linguistic uniformity is impractical and potentially imperialistic
Cultural implications
These debates often reveal deeper concerns about power, identity, and cultural change. When British speakers express discomfort about Americanisms, for example, linguist Lynne Murphy suggests this may reflect anxieties about shifting global power dynamics and the sense that American English is 'taking over' from British English as the international standard.
Exam application
For Paper 2, Section A, you may encounter texts that discuss or exemplify International Englishes. You'll need to:
- Identify and analyse features of different World Englishes
- Apply models (Kachru's, McArthur's, Schneider's) to explain relationships between varieties
- Discuss the spread and development of English globally
- Evaluate arguments about International English critically
- Use appropriate terminology accurately
For Section B language discourses, be prepared to engage with debates about linguistic diversity, language change, and the politics of English as a global language.
Remember!
Key Points to Remember:
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World Englishes are legitimate varieties of English that have developed in different countries, particularly former British colonies, each with their own phonological, lexical, grammatical, and orthographical features
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Kachru's three circles classify countries by their relationship to English: the Inner Circle (native speakers), Outer Circle (official second language), and Expanding Circle (foreign language for international communication)
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English as a lingua franca (ELF) is English used as a bridging language between non-native speakers and has distinctive linguistic features that prioritise communication efficiency
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Multiple factors contributed to English becoming a global language, including historical colonisation, economic power, cultural influence, academic dominance, and technological development
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Debates persist about who 'owns' English, whether varieties should be considered equal, and whether a single global standard is desirable or possible - these reflect deeper concerns about identity, power, and cultural change