The 'Global Commons' (AQA A-Level Geography): Revision Notes
The 'Global Commons'
What are the global commons?
The global commons are areas that exist beyond the control of any single country. These are supra-national spaces where resources are shared by all nations and, in theory, should benefit everyone equally.
The global commons refers to resource domains or areas that lie outside of the political reach of any one nation state. It is a term used to describe supra-national 'spaces' in which common shared resources can be found.
These areas are significant because they contain valuable resources that don't belong to any one country but are available for all to use. However, this shared access creates both opportunities and challenges for international cooperation.
The four recognised global commons
International law formally recognises four global commons:
- The high seas - oceans beyond national territorial waters
- The atmosphere - the air surrounding Earth
- Antarctica - the southernmost continent
- Outer space - the region beyond Earth's atmosphere
Memory Aid: Remember the four global commons with HAAO:
- High seas
- Atmosphere
- Antarctica
- Outer space
Cyberspace: a fifth global common?
Some experts argue that cyberspace should now be considered a global common. This is because it meets several key criteria that define global commons:
- It is a resource shared by all nations
- No single country controls it
- It includes the worldwide web, one of the main drivers of globalisation
- Like other global commons, it exists beyond national boundaries
Cyberspace meets the key criteria of being accessible to all whilst not being owned or controlled by any individual nation.
Rights and benefits of the global commons
The use of global commons is guided by an important principle in international law that ensures equitable access and distribution of resources.
The common heritage of mankind principle affirms that the natural resources in defined territories or spaces are held in common by all nations. These resources are to be distributed equitably for the benefit of everyone, including for future generations; individual nations have no sovereign rights to exploit them.
Key points of this principle:
- Resources must be shared fairly amongst all countries
- Future generations must be considered
- No single nation can claim ownership or exploitation rights
- Benefits should be distributed equitably
Historical access to resources
For most of history, accessing global commons resources has been difficult. The exception was fishing and whaling on the high seas, which nations have pursued for centuries.
Recent pressures on the global commons
In recent decades, the situation has changed dramatically due to two major factors:
Advances in science and technology have made it much easier to access and extract resources from global commons areas. For example:
- Deep-sea mining technology
- Satellite systems in outer space
- Advanced fishing techniques
Greater scarcity of resources has increased pressure on global commons. As minerals, fuels, and food become scarcer worldwide, there is growing demand to exploit global commons resources to meet the needs of a developing world.
These changes mean that the concept of common heritage is under increasing pressure. Without proper management, these shared resources risk being overexploited and depleted.
The tragedy of the commons
This concept helps explain why shared resources are at risk of destruction when individuals act in their own self-interest.
The tragedy of the commons explains why shared 'common access resources' of any type are likely to be overexploited. If individuals act independently and according to their self-interest, this will be contrary to the interest of the whole group because the shared resource will become depleted.
How the tragedy unfolds:
- A resource is freely available to all
- Each user acts in their own self-interest
- Individual users take as much as they can
- The cumulative effect is overexploitation
- The resource becomes depleted or destroyed
- Everyone loses access to the resource
Real-World Example: Overfishing
The tragedy of the commons has occurred on a global scale with fish stocks:
- Fish populations have been overfished beyond sustainable levels
- This has led to depletion of many species
- Marine pollution has increased
- Sustainability has been lost
This demonstrates why individual self-interest, without regulation, leads to collective harm affecting everyone.
Protecting the global commons
The only way to prevent the tragedy of the commons is through sustainable development and effective governance at a global level.
International cooperation is essential. Clear rules established by the United Nations help ensure that global commons are:
- Protected from over-exploitation
- Preserved for future generations
- Used responsibly by all nations
International laws and treaties
Each global common is protected by specific international agreements that establish frameworks for responsible use:
The high seas:
- UN Convention on the Law of the Sea (UNCLOS)
- Establishes rules for ocean use and resource management
The atmosphere:
- United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC)
- Paris Climate Accord
- Various other international environmental agreements
- These address climate change and atmospheric protection
Antarctica:
- Antarctic Treaty Systems (ATS)
- Prohibits military activity and mineral mining
- Promotes scientific research and environmental protection
Outer space:
- Outer Space Treaty (1967)
- Prevents weaponisation of space
- Establishes principles for space exploration
These treaties create a framework for international cooperation and establish that global commons cannot be exploited by individual nations for their own benefit alone.
Key Points to Remember:
- The global commons are four areas beyond national control: the high seas, atmosphere, Antarctica, and outer space (some include cyberspace as a fifth)
- The common heritage of mankind principle states these resources must be shared fairly by all nations for the benefit of present and future generations
- The tragedy of the commons explains why shared resources are at risk - individual self-interest leads to collective overexploitation
- Modern technology and resource scarcity have increased pressure on global commons
- International treaties like UNCLOS, UNFCCC, and the Antarctic Treaty Systems are essential for protecting global commons through sustainable governance