Expansion of the Empire in Africa (AQA A-Level History): Revision Notes
Expansion of the Empire in Africa
British attitudes toward African expansion 1857-74
British presence in Africa remained limited before 1857. During the period 1857-74, successive governments consistently viewed most African territory as economically unimportant. However, these same governments recognised that European rivals might threaten Britain's international standing, making them cautious about appearing weak or allowing competitor nations to gain advantages in the region.
This period reflects a contradictory British policy: whilst dismissing Africa's economic value, Britain remained strategically concerned about maintaining its international prestige and preventing rival European powers from gaining footholds on the continent.
Southern Africa
Initial British territories and populations
By 1857, Britain controlled two distinct territories in southern Africa. Cape Colony housed approximately 100,000 white inhabitants alongside 150,000 black people, predominantly Bantu - African peoples who shared related languages. The white minority later used the term 'Bantu' or 'native' to refer to Africans in South Africa, often with derogatory intent. Natal contained roughly 10,000 white and 100,000 black inhabitants. Cape Colony functioned as a strategic staging post for vessels travelling to eastern markets.
Both colonies operated with assemblies that wielded some authority. British-appointed governors controlled day-to-day administration but could not force assemblies to pass legislation or approve taxation.
The unusual power balance in British African colonies
This arrangement created an unusual power balance between imperial authority and colonial representation. Governors possessed administrative control but lacked legislative authority, whilst colonial assemblies could block policies but depended on British military support for defence. This system would later create significant tensions as colonial interests diverged from imperial policy.
Settler expansion and Boer republics
British territorial control lacked fixed boundaries, allowing settlers to push continuously into new areas. During the 1830s, Boer settlers had undertaken their 'trek' into Africa's interior to escape British control. These settlers established independent republics: Transvaal and the Orange Free State. This movement demonstrated how European colonists could operate beyond British authority whilst simultaneously creating future complications for imperial policy.
Conflicts with indigenous peoples
European territorial expansion generated warfare with indigenous African populations. The Xhosa people at the Cape and the Zulu people further north proved formidable opponents. Both groups resisted European encroachment effectively, with fighting on the frontier creating persistent instability. British authorities struggled to restore peace and establish control over the deteriorating situation.
British responses to frontier violence achieved mixed results:
- Authorities attempted costly annexation of frontier territories, though this strategy consumed substantial resources
- They tried entrusting defence to white colonists, but this approach foundered because colonists lacked sufficient numbers and wealth to maintain adequate forces
- Britain proposed uniting British-controlled territories with the Boer republics in a federation, but this initiative collapsed mainly because Boers rejected the concept
The failure of British frontier policy
All three British strategies for managing frontier instability - annexation, colonial defence, and federation - failed to provide effective or economical solutions. This failure would eventually contribute to more aggressive imperial policies in southern Africa, as Britain sought alternative methods to secure its interests and maintain regional stability.
Economic transformation through diamond discovery
In 1868, Gladstone's government annexed Basutoland specifically to protect it from Boer expansion. A more dramatic development occurred in the late 1860s when prospectors discovered diamonds in Griqualand. This discovery fundamentally altered southern Africa's economic prospects. Previously viewed as a financial burden, the region suddenly represented potentially enormous wealth. Britain annexed Griqualand in 1871, hoping annexation might reduce overall costs of British involvement in southern Africa by generating revenue from diamond extraction.
The transformative impact of diamond discoveries
The discovery of diamonds in Griqualand completely reversed British calculations about southern Africa. What had been dismissed as an economically worthless region requiring expensive military commitments suddenly became a source of potentially enormous wealth. This transformation demonstrates how natural resource discoveries could rapidly shift imperial priorities and justify territorial expansion.
Political developments and responsible government
The wealth generated from diamonds eased financial concerns about deeper political commitments. In 1872, the Cape Parliament agreed to undertake responsible government - a system where the colony gained greater autonomy in managing its internal affairs. Previously, the financial and military expenses of self-government had deterred Cape politicians from seeking this arrangement. Diamond revenue transformed these calculations, making responsible government financially viable and politically attractive.
West Africa
British coastal presence and limited expansion
Britain controlled several small coastal territories in West Africa: Gambia, Sierra Leone, and various forts along the Gold Coast. The British government safeguarded its commercial interests through cooperation with indigenous rulers. When local cooperation deteriorated, Britain occasionally intervened directly through military action.
In 1861, Britain annexed Lagos. More substantially, in 1873 local Ashanti forces attacked Africans living on the Gold Coast. Sir Garnet Wolseley commanded a successful campaign against the Ashanti. Following this victory, the Gold Coast became a Crown colony in 1874, bringing it under direct British governmental control rather than leaving it as a trading settlement.
Despite these acquisitions, the British government actively discouraged its small West African colonies from expanding inland or acquiring additional coastal territory that might connect existing settlements. This policy reflected persistent doubts about Africa's economic value and concerns about overextension of imperial resources.
East Africa
The Abyssinian expedition
British politicians demonstrated limited interest in acquiring east African territory through the Abyssinian expedition of 1868. General Napier led approximately 13,000 troops (predominantly Indian soldiers), supported by 50,000 camp followers, 18,000 mules, 17,000 camels and 44 elephants on a mission to rescue 60 European hostages imprisoned by Emperor Theodore.
After crossing 400 miles of hazardous terrain, Napier's forces destroyed Ethiopian troops at Magdala. Theodore killed himself and the prisoners gained their freedom. Napier then withdrew his entire force.
A military victory without territorial ambition
Although the expedition cost £8 million, no voices suggested Britain should retain Abyssinian territory. This expensive military success without territorial acquisition illustrated how British expansion remained selective and driven by specific strategic needs rather than systematic conquest. The Abyssinian expedition demonstrates that military capability did not automatically translate into territorial expansion during this period.
Egypt
The Suez Canal and British involvement
In 1859, the Egyptian government granted permission to Ferdinand de Lessop's French company to construct a canal connecting the Mediterranean to Suez. British Prime Minister Palmerston opposed this project because he feared it would inevitably increase British involvement in the region. The Suez Canal held potential importance for Britain's communications with eastern territories, particularly India.
British bankers, recognising the Canal's likely commercial and strategic value, invested considerably in the construction. The Canal finally opened in 1869, immediately reducing voyage times to India by two months. Its completion compelled Britain to develop an active interest in Egyptian affairs, precisely as Palmerston had predicted.
The strategic importance of the Suez Canal
The Canal's strategic importance meant Britain could not remain indifferent to Egyptian political stability or allow other powers to dominate the region. What Palmerston had feared came to pass - a French construction project forced Britain into deeper involvement in Egyptian affairs, demonstrating how infrastructure developments could reshape imperial strategy regardless of initial governmental preferences.
Explorers and missionaries
The opening up of Africa's interior
Commercial and strategic interests alone did not drive imperial expansion in Africa. Before 1850, few Europeans had penetrated Africa's interior. The continent appeared to offer limited opportunities for rapid profit whilst presenting severe risks from tropical diseases and hostile environments. Death rates for European travellers remained extremely high.
Technology and medicine as enablers of expansion
Advances in medicine and technology during the decades after 1850 made inland exploration increasingly practical. Improved treatments for tropical diseases reduced mortality rates. Better transportation technology - particularly steamships and later railways - made movement through difficult terrain more feasible. These developments enabled explorers, missionaries, traders and officials to reach previously inaccessible regions, gathering information and establishing contacts that would facilitate later territorial expansion.
Remember!
Key Points to Remember:
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British governments 1857-74 viewed Africa as economically unimportant but worried about European rivals gaining advantages
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Southern Africa transformed from financial burden to economic asset following diamond discoveries in Griqualand during the late 1860s
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Britain expanded selectively in Africa through annexations (Lagos 1861, Basutoland 1868, Griqualand 1871, Gold Coast 1874) whilst actively discouraging broader territorial expansion
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The 1868 Abyssinian expedition demonstrated British military capability but also showed reluctance to acquire new territories despite successful military operations
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The opening of the Suez Canal in 1869 forced British involvement in Egypt by making the region strategically important for communications with India