British Imperialism, 1890–1902 (AQA A-Level History): Revision Notes
British Imperialism, 1890–1902
During the 1890s, British imperialism took on a more assertive character. Imperialists developed competing visions for how the Empire might strengthen Britain and how Britain might strengthen the Empire. This period witnessed intensified debate about imperial expansion, the role of the colonies, and Britain's global position.
Key supporters of imperialism
Two figures dominated imperialist thinking and action during this period: Cecil Rhodes and Joseph Chamberlain. Both believed in Britain's imperial destiny, though their approaches and motivations differed.
Key figure: Cecil Rhodes
Cecil Rhodes was a diamond and gold magnate who became one of the most influential advocates for British imperial expansion in southern Africa. Born in 1853 as the son of a vicar from Bishop's Stortford, Rhodes travelled to southern Africa in 1870 hoping to improve his health. During the 1870s, he made his fortune from Kimberley diamonds. He entered the Cape Colony Parliament in 1881 and by 1888 had paid King Lobengula for mining concessions in territory north of the Limpopo River.
In 1889, Rhodes secured a Royal Charter for his British South Africa Company to exploit mineral resources north of the Transvaal. He became prime minister of the Cape in 1890 and immediately pursued his expansionist vision. That same year, he sent a Pioneer Column from Kimberley to Mashonaland, an invasion disguised as a mining expedition. By 1895, the area controlled by Rhodes' company had been named Rhodesia in his honour.
Rhodes developed what he termed a "big idea" for the expansion of the Empire. He believed the British were "the first race in the world, and that the more of the world we inhabit the better it is for the human race". His vision encompassed bringing Africa, Latin America, the Middle East and China under British rule, even suggesting the recovery of the USA in the process. He hoped to construct a railway from Cape Town to Cairo running entirely through British-controlled territory.
Rhodes believed that ends justified means. He could be ruthless and reckless. President Stephanus Johannes Paulus 'Paul' Kruger of the Transvaal described him as "one of the most unscrupulous characters that have ever existed".
Historian Bernard Porter, writing in 2004, analysed Rhodes' influence: his impact in South African affairs stemmed partly from his wealth and how he deployed it, and partly from the favour shown to him by British government ministers pursuing their own agendas. Rhodes used his wealth to cultivate ministerial favour, and ministers favoured him partly because of the power he wielded through his wealth. Politics and finance became finely entangled, though they remained distinct. His power base rested on the Kimberley diamond fields, which gave him a near-monopoly in 1888 on the gold reefs of the Witwatersrand. Though he never gained absolute control and shared these assets with other magnates in the 1890s, his gigantic concerns at his disposal, combined with winning ways across social boundaries that his rivals could not match, established a predominant position in South African politics.
Rhodes' career ended in disgrace. In 1895, he bore responsibility for the Jameson raid, and in 1896 was forced to resign as Cape prime minister because of his involvement. He died in 1902.
Joseph Chamberlain
Joseph Chamberlain led the Liberal Unionists, a party formed in 1886 following the Liberal split over Irish Home Rule. He had long advocated forging a more cohesive Empire through a federation of nations bound together by economic interest and governed by an imperial Parliament in London. Chamberlain took a positive view of imperial endeavour. He believed its purpose was to spread civilisation and commerce abroad in order to promote prosperity and social reform at home. By providing markets, raw materials and outlets for Britain's surplus population, colonies could alleviate hardship in Britain. Chamberlain hoped this would weaken the growing support for socialism, which he perceived as a major threat. Given the challenge from Germany and the USA, he believed that imperial unity was essential if Britain was to remain a great power.
In 1895, Chamberlain became colonial secretary. This post had not been considered particularly important in the past, as the Foreign Office dealt with major international negotiations. However, Chamberlain injected new energy into the role, perhaps best expressed by his remark that the colonies were a "neglected estate" which he was determined would not be neglected in the future. Despite his ambitions, Chamberlain's plans never developed as he wished due to shortage of Treasury money.
In 1897, Chamberlain pressed for a federal council which would establish a unified foreign policy for the Empire. The prime ministers of the self-governing colonies drew back from this proposal. While they discussed closer union, they did not want an institution based in London and dominated by Britain which might limit their freedom of action. Their concept of closer union centred on persuading Britain to establish a protective tariff with preferential rates for colonial products.
Popular support for Empire
Most Britons appeared to feel pride in the Empire and derived satisfaction from the belief that they constituted a successful imperial "race". Racial attitudes in Britain at this time assumed the superiority of white people over black people as self-evident. Britons also saw themselves as the best of all the white races. While the term "Anglo-Saxon race" was frequently used, it was not usually thought of in purely biological terms. Instead, it functioned as shorthand for a distinct set of values and institutions.
The most common justification for Empire rested less on race than on the concept of "mission". This was a strong belief that Britain brought education, peace and better conditions of life to "lower races". The imperial project was presented as a civilising endeavour, spreading British values, institutions and commerce to less developed peoples.
Historians generally agree that the greatest enthusiasm for Empire came from the upper and middle classes. However, evidence suggests that working-class Britons were more imperialist than was once thought. Victorian music-hall songs and acts, popular with the working classes, had a strong imperial emphasis, supporting a jingoistic view of Empire.
By the early twentieth century, the most popular newspapers – the Daily Mail and the Daily Express – strongly supported British imperialism. Imperial enthusiasts created associations to work for imperial unity, for example, the British Empire League established in 1894.
Opposition to Empire
Not all Britons supported imperialism. Radical Liberals, members of the fledgling Socialist groups and Irish Nationalists were all critical of it.
Key arguments against imperialism:
- The Empire exposed Britain to wars
- Imperial ambitions distracted attention from social problems at home
- The Empire exploited indigenous people
This opposition, though vocal, remained a minority position in British politics during this period.
The political impact of imperialism
Imperialism appeared to provide the cement the Conservatives had been seeking to forge all classes into "one nation". Conservative/Unionist governments held power for most of the period from 1886 to 1905.
The Liberal Party was divided on imperial questions. Some Liberals, like Lord Rosebery, were committed imperialists who supported expansion and believed in Britain's imperial mission. Others, like David Lloyd George, were anti-imperialist and viewed imperial adventures with suspicion, arguing they diverted resources and attention from domestic reform.
Greater Britain
Most of the self-governing colonies maintained close ties to Britain. This owed much to the fact that most Canadians, Australians and New Zealanders had British roots. There was also pride in association with Britain, which led the English-speaking countries in many ways. Moreover, the self-governing colonies appreciated the tangible economic and financial benefits of links with Britain. These practical advantages reinforced sentimental and cultural connections.
Australian unity
The various Australian colonies had begun to draw closer together during the 1880s. Several factors encouraged this movement. In 1882, an Australian cricket team defeated an English team, an event that helped Australians to see themselves as a nation well before political union. Germany's brief period of advance in the Pacific from 1883 to 1885 made Australians more concerned about their position in the world and more willing to consider ways of uniting the colonies. A Federal Council was created, comprising representatives of the six colonies.
The Path to Australian Federation:
Step 1: Constitutional foundations (1890-1891) Two meetings in 1890 and 1891 laid the foundations of an Australian constitution. It was taken for granted that the British monarch would be head of state. The colonies then set out to build a federal and democratic system, similar to that of the USA.
Step 2: Referendums (1898) In 1898, the proposed constitution was presented to the electorates to vote on in referendums. After some revisions, the constitution was accepted by all the colonies.
Step 3: Federation achieved (1901) Britain accepted the new constitution and Australia emerged as a self-governing colony in January 1901. Most Australians saw federation as a way of playing a more important part within the British Empire, not as a step away from it.
Key Points to Remember:
- By the 1890s, a more strident form of imperialism had emerged, with advocates like Cecil Rhodes and Joseph Chamberlain promoting different visions of imperial expansion and consolidation.
- Cecil Rhodes, Cape prime minister from 1890, used his diamond and gold wealth to pursue British expansion in southern Africa, though his career ended after the Jameson raid in 1895.
- Joseph Chamberlain became colonial secretary in 1895 and sought to create imperial federation with economic unity, though his plans were frustrated by colonial resistance and lack of Treasury funding.
- Popular support for Empire was widespread across British society, justified by beliefs in racial superiority and Britain's "civilising mission", though a minority including Radical Liberals, Socialists and Irish Nationalists opposed imperialism.
- Australia federated in 1901, creating a self-governing colony that saw closer unity as strengthening ties within the British Empire rather than moving away from it.