Problems in Southern Africa, 1890–7 (AQA A-Level History): Revision Notes

Problems in Southern Africa, 1890–7

Background to tension in southern Africa

Britain claimed nominal sovereignty over Transvaal and the Orange Free State following earlier conflicts, but by the early 1880s had effectively restored independence to both Boer republics. This arrangement maintained relative stability until economic factors dramatically altered the regional balance of power.

In 1886, gold was discovered in Transvaal. This transformed the territory into the wealthiest nation in southern Africa virtually overnight. The discovery threatened to shift regional dominance away from Britain and towards the Boers, creating new tensions that would define Anglo-Boer relations for the next fifteen years.

The uitlanders problem

Uitlanders were white foreigners, predominantly British and German, who lived in Transvaal and the Orange Free State.

Transvaal lacked sufficient skilled workers and technical expertise to develop its newly discovered gold mines independently. Large influxes of foreign workers – uitlanders – poured into Transvaal hoping to make their fortunes. Many succeeded. Within a decade, much of Transvaal's newfound wealth had passed into the hands of a relatively small number of British and German mine-owners.

By the mid-1890s, uitlanders outnumbered the Boer inhabitants of Transvaal and contributed nine-tenths of the territory's tax revenue. Despite their economic dominance, uitlanders possessed no political rights. President Kruger's government, determined to maintain Boer supremacy, enacted legislation requiring uitlanders to reside in Transvaal for fourteen years before they could apply for full citizenship.

Kruger's railway proposal

Kruger's denial of voting rights to uitlanders, combined with taxation policies some considered oppressive, provided the British government with justification for interference in Transvaal's internal affairs. Britain grew increasingly anxious to curtail Transvaal's independent behaviour.

British concerns intensified between 1894 and 1895 when Transvaal's government proposed constructing a railway through Portuguese East Africa (modern Mozambique). This railway would bypass British-controlled ports at Natal and Cape Colony entirely. Beyond freeing Transvaal from British economic control, the railway would severely damage the prosperity of Britain's own colonies in the region.

British policy responses

Salisbury's aims

In 1895, Lord Salisbury returned as Conservative prime minister, simultaneously holding the position of foreign secretary. His objectives centred on protecting Britain's core imperial interests: security, India, and control of world sea lanes through preserving peace.

Salisbury's tenure at the Foreign Office became associated with 'splendid isolation' – the policy that Britain need not enter binding alliances with other powers. Parliament exercised limited influence over Salisbury's foreign and imperial policy. Where disagreements occurred within the Liberal Party, Little Englanders denounced Britain's imperial ambitions as necessitating excessive military expenditure. Liberal leaders generally supported Salisbury's policies, however.

Salisbury disliked allowing democratic pressures to influence diplomatic processes, particularly fearing popular excitements fuelled by newspaper coverage. Nevertheless, he recognised that public opinion could not be entirely ignored. Occasionally he found himself pushed toward actions he would have preferred to avoid. Joseph Chamberlain proved one of those applying such pressure.

Joseph Chamberlain

Chamberlain had transferred his allegiance from the Liberal Unionists to the Conservatives over his opposition to Irish Home Rule. In 1895, Chamberlain became colonial secretary, aiming to forge a more unified Empire. He rapidly enhanced his own authority whilst raising the Colonial Office's profile considerably.

Chamberlain's aggressive defence of British imperial interests, supported by jingoistic press coverage, sometimes conflicted with Salisbury's more cautious approach to policy. This tension between the prime minister's restraint and the colonial secretary's assertiveness would shape Britain's handling of southern African problems.

Cecil Rhodes and territorial expansion

Cecil Rhodes dreamed of bringing the whole of Africa under British rule. The Boer republics stood directly in the path of his ambitions.

The British South Africa Company

Through the British South Africa Company, Rhodes dispatched men north of the Limpopo river into Mashonaland in 1890. He hoped they would discover gold deposits substantial enough to overshadow Transvaal's advantage. Rhodes' actions led to annexation of territories later designated Southern Rhodesia (modern Zimbabwe) and Northern Rhodesia (modern Zambia). No significant gold fields materialised, however.

By 1893, following a brief but decisive war against the Matabele people, the company's political authority was firmly established. Britain, having taken control of the Nyasa area, permitted the South Africa Company to administer it. Rhodes' company thus controlled an area covering approximately 750,000 square miles.

The Jameson Raid, December 1895

During the early 1890s, Rhodes encouraged uitlanders to agitate for voting rights in Transvaal. President Kruger's government correctly identified this as a calculated attempt to undermine the republic's independence.

In 1895, Rhodes developed a plan to seize control of Transvaal. An uprising by uitlanders would be supported by men from his company's mounted police force. Rhodes delegated planning to Dr Jameson, a company administrator. Rhodes anticipated Jameson would wait for a revolt to break out in Johannesburg before his forces crossed the border to assist.

However, in December 1895, Jameson led 600 armed men into Transvaal prematurely. Boer authorities had received warning of the raid and were prepared. Jameson's men were rapidly surrounded by Boer forces. After a brief skirmish, they were compelled to surrender. The planned uitlander uprising never materialised.

Consequences of the Jameson Raid

The raid produced several far-reaching consequences:

Instead of weakening President Kruger, the raid strengthened his position and made him less willing to compromise with British demands. His government emerged with enhanced legitimacy.

The raid's spectacular failure caused severe embarrassment for both Salisbury and Chamberlain. Both denied any prior knowledge of the operation, though this denial strained credibility in many quarters.

Rhodes, heavily censured at both a Cape inquiry and a London parliamentary investigation, was compelled to resign as Cape prime minister and as chairman of the South Africa Company. His reputation suffered lasting damage.

Transvaal's government handed captured raiders to British authorities. They were tried in Britain. Jameson, regarded as heroic by the British public, received a fifteen-month prison sentence. For a period, his wax model occupied a place of honour at Madame Tussaud's wax figures museum in London.

The raid alienated many Cape Boers from Britain, generating widespread resentment that would have lasting political effects.

The British government recognised it could no longer pursue southern African policies by relying on capitalists like Rhodes to act on its behalf. Direct governmental control would be necessary.

The raid drew Transvaal and the Orange Free State together in opposition to the British threat. In 1897, the two Boer republics signed a military pact, creating a defensive alliance.

Kruger, convinced that war with Britain was increasingly probable, equipped Transvaal's army with modern European rifles and artillery, preparing for potential conflict.

Rhodesian rebellions, 1896

In 1896, both the Mashona and Matabele tribes rebelled against the South Africa Company's rule in Rhodesia. They killed more than 370 Europeans, representing approximately ten per cent of the white population. White settlers, assisted by British soldiers, possessed superior firepower to defeat the rebels, who retreated to strongholds in the Matopo Hills.

Rhodes salvaged his damaged reputation by riding forward alone to meet the Matabele leaders. He managed to bring the rebellion to a quicker and less violent conclusion than had initially appeared possible, demonstrating the diplomatic skills that had contributed to his earlier successes.

Summary table: Key developments 1890–7

Year	Development	Significance
1886	Gold discovery in Transvaal	Shifted regional economic power towards Boers
1890	Rhodes' expansion into Mashonaland	Extended British territorial control northward
1893	War against Matabele people	Consolidated company control over 750,000 square miles
1894–5	Railway proposal through Portuguese East Africa	Threatened British economic dominance in region
1895	Salisbury returned as PM; Chamberlain became colonial secretary	Intensified British imperial policy
December 1895	Jameson Raid	Failed spectacularly, strengthened Kruger, embarrassed British government
1896	Rhodesian rebellions	Rhodes restored some reputation through diplomacy
1897	Military pact between Boer republics	Created unified opposition to British pressure

Key figures

Lord Salisbury (Prime Minister and Foreign Secretary, 1895)

Salisbury pursued a cautious foreign policy prioritising peace, security, and protection of India and sea lanes. Associated with 'splendid isolation', he preferred avoiding binding international alliances. He resisted allowing public opinion or press excitement to dictate diplomatic decisions, though he recognised their influence could not be entirely dismissed. His restrained approach sometimes clashed with Chamberlain's more aggressive imperial advocacy.

Joseph Chamberlain (Colonial Secretary, 1895)

Former Liberal Unionist who joined the Conservatives over Irish Home Rule opposition. As colonial secretary from 1895, Chamberlain aimed to create a more coherent Empire. He rapidly expanded the Colonial Office's authority and profile. His aggressive defence of British imperial interests, often supported by jingoistic newspapers, pushed Salisbury towards more interventionist positions than the prime minister naturally preferred. His denial of knowledge regarding the Jameson Raid damaged his credibility.

Cecil Rhodes

Mining magnate and imperialist who dreamed of placing all of Africa under British rule. Through the British South Africa Company, he extended British control northward into territories that became Northern and Southern Rhodesia. His company administered 750,000 square miles by 1893. The Jameson Raid, which Rhodes orchestrated, destroyed his political career. He was forced to resign as Cape prime minister and as company chairman, though he partially restored his reputation by negotiating an end to the 1896 Rhodesian rebellions.