Imperialism Challenged, 1914–39 (AQA A-Level History): Revision Notes
The Dominions
Dominion status by 1919
By 1919, the five Dominions – Canada, Newfoundland, Australia, New Zealand, and South Africa – had achieved self-government in domestic matters. Britain, however, retained control over their foreign policies. The 1914 declaration of war against Germany had been decided solely by the British Cabinet, with no consultation of Dominion governments. This arrangement reflected the subordinate constitutional position of the Dominions at the outbreak of the First World War.
The Dominions had significant autonomy in managing their internal affairs, but Britain's control over foreign policy meant they had no independent voice in international relations or decisions about war and peace.
The war experience transformed this relationship. As the conflict progressed, the Dominions increasingly viewed themselves as equal partners with Britain rather than dependencies. Their substantial military contributions and wartime sacrifices strengthened their claims to equal status. This shift received formal recognition after 1918 when the Dominions gained separate representation at the Paris Peace Conference and membership in the League of Nations (with the exception of Newfoundland). Britain could no longer treat the Dominions as subordinate territories whose voices could be ignored in international affairs.
Growing disunity
Expectations of continued cooperation
Britain and the Dominions had cooperated effectively during the war, and British policymakers assumed this diplomatic harmony would continue in peacetime. The Imperial War Cabinet, established during the conflict, represented an institutional attempt to maintain unity. This body agreed that future British prime ministers would develop imperial foreign policy through a process of 'continuous consultation' with Dominion leaders. The intention was to create a coordinated imperial foreign policy that respected Dominion interests while maintaining a unified stance in international affairs.
The reality of divergent interests
This ideal rapidly proved unworkable. Britain and the Dominions possessed separate and often conflicting national interests. The difficulties of 'continuous consultation' became apparent during discussions about renewing the Anglo-Japanese treaty in 1920-1. Australia and New Zealand, conscious of Japanese regional power and their own security concerns, supported renewal. Canada, influenced by its relationship with the United States (which opposed the treaty), rejected renewal. The episode demonstrated that it was extremely difficult to satisfy all parties simultaneously.
The Anglo-Japanese treaty renewal debate revealed a fundamental problem: each Dominion had its own regional interests and relationships that didn't always align with British policy or with each other's priorities.
Each Dominion pursued its own interests. Britain maintained global interests and worldwide commitments that the Dominions did not share. Britain proved unwilling to accept the restrictions on its freedom of action that genuine 'continuous consultation' would have imposed. The Dominions similarly refused to subordinate their distinct national interests to a common imperial policy.
The 1922 Chanak Crisis
Chanak crisis – An international crisis which almost resulted in a war between Britain and Turkey in 1922.
The Chanak Crisis marked a turning point in Britain-Dominion relations, exposing the collapse of the 'continuous consultation' policy.
Britain faced a confrontation with Turkey without consulting the Dominions beforehand. When Prime Minister Lloyd George appealed to the Dominions to send military forces to Turkey, responses varied dramatically:
- New Zealand offered support
- Australia responded with less enthusiasm
- Canada directly refused assistance
- South Africa prudently remained silent
No military intervention proved necessary, but the crisis revealed that diplomatic unity between Britain and its Dominions was fictional. The policy of 'continuous consultation' was abandoned. Britain subsequently pursued its own foreign policy independently, and several Dominions soon established their own diplomatic missions abroad. Canada led this movement toward diplomatic independence.
Attempts to maintain imperial unity
Despite the failure of continuous consultation, efforts continued to preserve some appearance of unity. Imperial conferences, attended by Dominion leaders, convened in London at irregular intervals: 1921, 1923, 1926, 1930, and 1937. A Committee of Imperial Defence also existed, though few Dominion representatives attended its meetings. The Dominions showed little eagerness to share the financial burden of imperial defence, preferring to rely on Britain to provide the military spending necessary for their security. This arrangement suited Dominion governments, which gained the benefits of British protection without proportionate costs.
Formal recognition of Dominion independence
The need for constitutional clarity
Although the Dominions functioned as independent countries for most practical purposes by the 1920s, this independence rested on custom and convention rather than formal constitutional definition. The ambiguous legal status created practical difficulties. Britain faced pressure from South Africa, Ireland, and Canada to define Dominion status more precisely in law.
Commonwealth – A group of states united by a common interest or joint history.
This term gradually replaced "Empire" to reflect the changing relationship between Britain and the Dominions.
The 1926 Balfour Declaration
The Commonwealth Conference of 1926 addressed this constitutional uncertainty by agreeing to the Balfour Declaration. This document stated that the Dominions were 'autonomous communities within the Empire, equal in status, in no way subordinate to one to another in any aspect of their domestic or external affairs, though united by a common allegiance to the Crown'. The Declaration established the constitutional principle of Dominion equality with Britain, transforming the nature of the imperial relationship.
The Balfour Declaration represented a fundamental shift from Empire to Commonwealth, recognizing Dominions as equal partners rather than subordinate territories. Only common allegiance to the Crown remained as a unifying element.
The 1931 Statute of Westminster
The Statute of Westminster (1931) completed the legal process by which an Empire based on central British authority transformed into a Commonwealth of independent states. Dominions acquired the right to alter their own constitutions and even to withdraw from the Commonwealth entirely if they chose to do so. Common allegiance to the British Crown remained the sole formal constitutional link between the Dominions and Britain. The Statute represented the culmination of Dominion constitutional evolution, providing the legal framework for full independence.
Britain's relations with individual Dominions
Britain's relationship with each Dominion developed differently during the interwar period, reflecting diverse local circumstances and political conditions.
Ireland
For ten years following the 1922 settlement that established the Irish Free State, Ireland generally cooperated with Britain. This changed in 1932 when Fianna Fáil became the largest party in the Irish Parliament. Éamon de Valera, Fianna Fáil's leader, made no secret of his ambition to create a united and fully independent Ireland. By late 1932, Britain and Ireland were locked in a 'trade war', with both countries progressively increasing tariffs on goods from the other.
The Irish-British trade war of the 1930s demonstrated how Dominion independence could lead to serious economic conflicts when political interests diverged sharply.
The new Irish constitution of 1937 laid claim to all 32 counties of Ireland and described Southern Ireland – referred to as Éire – as 'a sovereign, independent, democratic state'. Éire remained a Commonwealth member only in name. The practical ties between Britain and Ireland had largely dissolved, though formal membership continued.
South Africa
The coming to power of the Afrikaner Nationalist Party in 1924 created difficulties for Britain. Many Boers harboured anti-British sentiments stemming from the Second Boer War and expressed desires for complete independence from British influence. Relations between Britain and South Africa remained uneasy throughout the interwar period, characterised by mutual suspicion and political tensions. The Afrikaner nationalist movement represented a persistent challenge to British interests in southern Africa.
Canada
Canadian politics and loyalties were complicated by divisions between French-speaking and English-speaking communities. Mackenzie King, who served as Canadian prime minister for most of the interwar period, depended politically on the support of French-Canadians. Consequently, he adopted a less pro-British stance than previous Canadian leaders had maintained. King's government prioritised Canadian interests and showed less automatic deference to British policy preferences.
Newfoundland, a large island with a small population, governed itself throughout the 1920s. Unable to cope economically with the Great Depression of the early 1930s, Newfoundland returned to colonial status, ruled directly from London. This represented an exceptional reversal of the general trend toward Dominion independence.
Australia and New Zealand
Most Australians and New Zealanders remained loyal to the Empire during the interwar period. The growing military threat posed by Japan in the 1930s served to strengthen Australian and New Zealand friendship with Britain. Geographic isolation and security concerns reinforced these Dominions' attachment to Britain, which they viewed as their ultimate guarantor against Japanese expansion in the Pacific.
Continued loyalty despite formal independence
Bonds of sentiment and practical interest
Although the formal constitutional bonds of Empire largely disappeared during the 1920s and 1930s, many people in the Dominions continued to feel emotionally attached to Britain. These bonds rested on multiple foundations:
- A shared historical past
- Common use of the English language
- Similar political and legal institutions
- Loyalty to the Royal family
Cultural and sentimental ties proved more durable than constitutional ones. The bonds of language, history, and shared institutions maintained connections even after formal subordination ended.
Most British emigrants in the 1930s still chose to settle in the Dominions rather than elsewhere. Paradoxically, the flow of English-speaking population moved into Britain rather than away from it during this decade, as economic depression affected the Dominions severely. Many British families maintained personal connections with relatives and friends in the Dominions, creating networks of family ties across the Empire.
The Dominions also remained connected to Britain through practical self-interest. Britain constituted a vital market for Dominion exports and an important source of investment capital. Economic interdependence complemented sentimental attachment, creating multiple incentives for continued cooperation even after formal subordination ended.
The test of 1939
The continuing importance of Commonwealth bonds received dramatic demonstration in 1939. When Britain declared war on Germany on 3 September 1939, Australia, New Zealand, and Canada all issued their own declarations of war against Germany. These decisions, though formally independent, aligned with British policy and demonstrated continued Commonwealth solidarity in the face of external threats.
The 1939 response to war provided the ultimate test of Commonwealth unity. Despite having constitutional independence, most Dominions chose to stand with Britain in her hour of need.
In South Africa, the Afrikaner Nationalist Party initially supported a policy of neutrality, reflecting persistent anti-British sentiment. General Jan Smuts, however, forced a debate in the House of Assembly and secured a majority for war by 80 votes to 67. South Africa entered the war despite significant internal opposition. Only Éire chose to remain neutral throughout the Second World War, completing its de facto separation from the Commonwealth.
Key figures
Éamon de Valera – Leader of Fianna Fáil and dominant figure in Irish politics during the 1930s. De Valera pursued a consistent policy of reducing British influence in Ireland and advancing toward full independence. His 1937 constitution asserted Irish sovereignty and territorial claims over all of Ireland, though Éire remained nominally within the Commonwealth. De Valera maintained Irish neutrality during the Second World War.
Mackenzie King – Prime minister of Canada for most of the interwar period. King's political base among French-Canadians influenced his less pro-British foreign policy stance compared to earlier Canadian leaders. He prioritised Canadian autonomy and refused to commit Canada automatically to British imperial policies, exemplified by his refusal to support Britain during the Chanak Crisis.
Jan Smuts – South African statesman and general who served as prime minister 1919-24 and 1939-48. A former Boer commander who had fought against Britain, Smuts subsequently became a supporter of the British Empire and Commonwealth. In 1939, he successfully persuaded the South African Parliament to enter the war on Britain's side, overcoming Afrikaner Nationalist opposition to involvement.
Remember!
Key Points to Remember:
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By 1919, the Dominions had achieved self-government and increasingly viewed themselves as equal partners with Britain rather than subordinates, gaining separate representation at the Paris Peace Conference and in the League of Nations.
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The 1922 Chanak Crisis demonstrated that 'continuous consultation' between Britain and the Dominions was impractical, as the Dominions responded to British appeals for military support with varying degrees of enthusiasm, from New Zealand's support to Canada's outright refusal.
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The 1926 Balfour Declaration and 1931 Statute of Westminster formally recognised Dominion independence, defining them as autonomous communities equal in status to Britain, with only common allegiance to the Crown remaining as a constitutional link.
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Britain's relations with individual Dominions varied considerably: Ireland moved toward de facto independence under de Valera; South Africa experienced tensions due to Afrikaner nationalism; Canada pursued autonomy under Mackenzie King; while Australia and New Zealand remained relatively loyal, strengthened by concerns about Japanese expansion.
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Despite formal independence, sentiment, family connections, economic interdependence, and shared institutions maintained Commonwealth bonds, demonstrated in 1939 when Australia, New Zealand, Canada, and South Africa (after internal debate) all entered the war alongside Britain, with only Éire remaining neutral.