British Attitudes to Empire (AQA A-Level History): Revision Notes
British Attitudes to Empire
During the interwar period, British attitudes toward the Empire were divided. While many politicians and citizens regarded imperial possessions as an asset that enhanced Britain's global standing and economic strength, others questioned whether maintaining the Empire aligned with British democratic values. The debate centred on whether the Empire represented a source of national pride and prosperity or an expensive burden that contradicted principles of self-determination and justice.
This fundamental tension between imperial expansion and democratic principles would shape British political discourse throughout the 1920s and 1930s, creating a complex landscape of competing ideologies and practical considerations.
Support for the Empire
Public backing for the Empire remained widespread throughout the 1920s and 1930s. This support was cultivated and reinforced through multiple channels that reached different segments of British society.
Media promotion of imperial ideology
Press barons played an active role in championing imperial values. Lord Beaverbrook, proprietor of the Daily Express, one of Britain's most widely-read newspapers, consistently used his publication to advocate for the Empire and promote imperialist perspectives. His influence demonstrated how mass media could shape public opinion on imperial matters.
The BBC's Role in Imperial Propaganda
The British Broadcasting Corporation (BBC), under the direction of Lord Reith, became another instrument for fostering imperial unity. Reith viewed radio broadcasting as a means to bind together the various territories of the Empire. The BBC generally presented the Empire in positive terms, depicting it as a benevolent and civilising force.
Empire Day, celebrated annually on 24 May (Queen Victoria's birthday), received substantial airtime, reinforcing the imperial calendar in British consciousness. The King's Christmas Day broadcasts incorporated strong imperial themes, reminding listeners of their connection to territories across the globe. In 1932, the BBC launched the Empire Service, a dedicated broadcasting operation that transmitted programmes to all countries within the Empire, creating an audio link across continents and strengthening cultural ties.
Organised imperialist movements
Formal organisations emerged to promote imperial sentiment. Groups such as the British Empire Union were established specifically to advance imperialist causes and maintain public enthusiasm for Britain's overseas territories. These organisations coordinated propaganda efforts and lobbied for policies that would strengthen imperial bonds.
Mass Spectacle and Imperial Display
Large-scale public exhibitions served as spectacular displays of imperial power and diversity. Two enormous Empire exhibitions were mounted during this period: one at Wembley in 1924 and another in Glasgow in 1938. Both events attracted millions of visitors who encountered exhibits showcasing the resources, peoples, and cultures of Britain's colonies and dominions. These exhibitions functioned as educational spectacles that celebrated imperial achievement while also promoting economic links between Britain and its territories.
Cultural reinforcement through popular entertainment
Imperial themes permeated British popular culture. Children's literature frequently celebrated the martial virtues and heroic exploits of imperial figures, creating narratives that presented Empire-building as adventurous and morally righteous. Adult thriller writers similarly incorporated imperial settings and characters, often portraying British administrators and soldiers as courageous defenders of civilisation against various threats.
The film industry exploited imperial themes extensively. British and American cinema produced popular feature films that offered positive portrayals of the British imperial system. Productions such as The Drum and The Four Feathers depicted British military action in colonial contexts as honourable and necessary, shaping public perceptions of imperial governance. These films reached mass audiences and proved influential in forming attitudes, particularly among younger generations who absorbed their romanticised depictions of imperial service.
Recruitment and youth movements
The armed services recognised the value of imperial imagery for attracting recruits. Promotional materials emphasised the adventurous dimensions of serving in colonial territories, appealing to young men seeking excitement and travel opportunities. This recruitment strategy linked military service with imperial duty and personal development.
The Scouting movement, which continued to flourish during the 1920s and 1930s, incorporated imperial values into its programme. Scouting encouraged young people to identify with the Empire and understand themselves as part of a global British community. The movement's emphasis on outdoor skills, self-reliance, and service aligned with imperial ideals of character development.
Commercial advertising and national identity
Traditional advertising methods promoting Greater Britain remained common throughout this period. Commercial products were frequently marketed using imperial imagery and associations, linking consumer goods with the prestige and resources of the Empire. This advertising approach both reflected and reinforced the idea that the Empire was integral to everyday British life.
More fundamentally, the Empire constituted an important element of British national identity. Many Britons understood their nation's global role and historical significance through the lens of Empire. Imperial possessions were seen as evidence of British achievement, power, and civilising mission, contributing to a sense of collective pride and purpose.
Opposition to the Empire
Despite widespread support, dissenting voices challenged the legitimacy and morality of imperial rule. These critics drew attention to contradictions between British democratic principles and the reality of colonial governance.
Democratic inconsistencies
The Democratic Paradox
Many Britons who valued parliamentary democracy found it difficult to reconcile these beliefs with the authoritative nature of imperial administration. The Empire was not governed democratically; colonial subjects lacked the political rights and representation that British citizens enjoyed at home. This inconsistency became increasingly uncomfortable for those who regarded democracy as a universal principle rather than a privilege reserved for particular populations.
Doubts emerged about the justice of imperial rule, particularly when colonial authorities employed violence to suppress opposition movements. The use of force against people seeking self-determination or protesting oppressive policies raised ethical questions about Britain's civilising mission. Critics argued that resorting to repression revealed the fundamentally coercive nature of imperial power.
Concerns about indigenous rights
There was growing concern about the rights of indigenous peoples living under British rule. Reformers and humanitarian organisations drew attention to exploitation, discrimination, and cultural destruction in various colonies. These advocates argued that indigenous populations deserved respect for their cultures, legal protections, and ultimately self-governance. Such arguments challenged the paternalistic assumption that British rule was inherently beneficial for colonised peoples.
Economic and political calculations
Practical objections also emerged regarding the financial burden of maintaining the Empire. Many Britons questioned whether expenditure on imperial defence served Britain's best interests, particularly when domestic welfare needs remained unmet. Critics argued that resources devoted to policing distant territories and protecting trade routes could be better spent on improving living conditions, health care, and education at home.
Labour Party Opposition
The Labour Party, which formed two short-lived governments during the interwar period, proved especially critical of the Empire. Labour politicians often emphasised social reform and questioned whether imperial ventures aligned with the party's commitment to equality and workers' rights. This opposition represented a significant political challenge to the imperial consensus, even if Labour's actual policies when in government proved more cautious than their rhetoric suggested.
Historiographical perspective: the Empire by 1939
Historians debate whether the British Empire was in retreat by 1939 or whether it retained substantial strength and vitality. This question requires careful examination of political, economic, and military indicators from the late 1930s.
Historical Interpretation: Martin Kitchen's Argument
Martin Kitchen, writing in The British Empire and Commonwealth: A Short History (Macmillan Press, 1996), offered a pessimistic assessment of the Empire's condition on the eve of the Second World War. Kitchen argued that when viewed retrospectively from the perspective of 1939, the Empire appeared to be "on the brink of collapse."
His evidence included:
- The white Dominions (Canada, Australia, New Zealand, South Africa) had achieved independence and were functioning as sovereign nations rather than subordinate territories
- India, the most valuable imperial possession, was moving rapidly toward sovereign statehood, with independence appearing inevitable
- Other colonies in Africa, Asia, and the Caribbean would inevitably follow similar paths toward self-governance
This interpretation emphasises the fragility and unsustainability of British imperial power by the late 1930s.
However, other historians have challenged this view, arguing that the Empire was not in irreversible decline or retreat. They point to continued imperial expansion in the Middle East, the economic integration of colonial territories, and the mobilisation of imperial resources during the Second World War as evidence that the Empire retained considerable strength. This historiographical debate reflects broader questions about how to periodise imperial decline and whether retreat was inevitable or could have been arrested through different policies.
Key Points to Remember:
- British public opinion in the 1920s-1930s was divided between support for and opposition to the Empire, though supporters remained dominant in most sectors.
- Multiple institutions promoted imperial ideology: Lord Beaverbrook's Daily Express, the BBC under Lord Reith (especially through the Empire Service from 1932), mass exhibitions at Wembley (1924) and Glasgow (1938), popular films like The Drum and The Four Feathers, children's literature, and the Scouting movement.
- Opposition to the Empire centred on the contradiction between British democratic values and authoritarian colonial rule, concerns about violence against colonial populations, indigenous rights, and the financial cost of imperial defence versus domestic welfare spending.
- The Labour Party represented the most organised political opposition to the Empire during this period.
- Historians debate whether the Empire was in retreat by 1939: Martin Kitchen argued it was "on the brink of collapse" with Dominions already independent and India moving toward sovereignty, while others contend the Empire retained substantial power and resources.