The Middle East (AQA A-Level History): Revision Notes
The Middle East
Britain's position in 1919
By 1914, Britain had established control over Aden and exercised substantial influence across Egypt and numerous sheikhdoms and sultanates along the Persian Gulf. The First World War dramatically expanded British interests in the region. In 1919, Britain assumed administrative responsibility for Palestine, Transjordan and Mesopotamia. These territorial acquisitions transformed Britain's strategic position, making the security of the Suez Canal a fundamental objective of British policy.
The discovery of oil during this period added an economic dimension to Britain's strategic concerns, making the region increasingly important. Britain's dominant position rested on maintaining careful management of Anglo-Arab relations. The British approach minimised interference with local society, primarily because officials feared provoking a full-scale Arab revolt. Control operated through friendly local rulers who depended on Britain's military assistance for their survival.
Britain's strategy in the Middle East relied on indirect control - working through local rulers rather than direct administration. This approach aimed to maintain influence whilst avoiding the costs and risks of full colonial occupation.
Egypt
Serious demonstrations erupted in Egypt in 1919, convincing British officials that the 1914 annexation of Egypt should not become permanent. In 1922, Britain granted Egypt independence, but this independence remained limited in practice. Britain retained control over Egypt's foreign and defence policies and stationed an army in the country to protect the Suez Canal.
Egypt's 1922 independence was largely nominal. Britain maintained effective control over the country's most crucial functions: foreign policy, defence, and the strategically vital Suez Canal zone.
The 1936 treaty formalised this arrangement. It permitted the presence of 10,000 British troops in the Suez Canal zone and allowed unlimited numbers of British troops in Egypt during emergencies. This treaty demonstrated that whilst Britain acknowledged Egyptian sovereignty, it refused to relinquish control over what it considered essential strategic interests.
Iraq
Mesopotamia (Iraq) presented Britain with immediate difficulties. A revolt erupted in 1920, which British forces suppressed only with considerable difficulty. Winston Churchill, serving as colonial secretary in 1921, worked to establish a ruler who would prove acceptable to Iraqis whilst remaining friendly to Britain. He supported Faisal, son of Sherif Hussein, a trusted Arab leader. Although Faisal had no previous connection with the area, he was formally 'elected' King of Iraq in 1922.
A treaty signed that year made Iraq an independent state bound to Britain during the period of the mandate. The mandate ended in 1930, but Iraq accepted the continuing presence of British military bases. This arrangement provided Britain with strategic bases whilst giving Iraq nominal independence.
The Iraqi settlement exemplified Britain's preferred method of control: installing a friendly monarch who would maintain British interests whilst providing the appearance of independence. The retention of military bases ensured Britain could protect its strategic interests in the region.
Palestine
Palestine posed enormous problems for Britain throughout the interwar period. These difficulties stemmed from conflicting promises made during the First World War and incompatible aspirations of Jewish and Arab populations.
The Balfour Declaration
In 1917, the Balfour Declaration committed Britain to supporting the 'establishment in Palestine of a national home for the Jewish people'. The Declaration served the immediate purpose of winning support from American Jewish opinion for the Allied war effort, but its long-term implications proved troublesome. The Declaration remained deliberately vague about fundamental questions: What would constitute the exact status of a national home? Where would its frontiers lie? How could Jewish immigration be reconciled with the fact that Arabs formed the greater number of people in the area?
The Balfour Declaration's Critical Ambiguities
The Declaration's vague wording created irreconcilable conflicts by failing to address:
- The exact status of the 'national home' - was it to be a state?
- The territorial boundaries of this proposed entity
- How to reconcile Jewish immigration with the existing Arab majority population
These unanswered questions would haunt British policy for decades.
Balfour himself saw no justification for a British presence in Palestine and would have preferred the USA to assume the mandatory power. However, most British politicians, recognising the strategic importance of the area, supported British control of Palestine.
Jewish immigration
Large-scale Jewish immigration generated increasing native Arab resentment. British politicians tended to sympathise with the Jewish desire to establish a country of their own, and some even envisaged a Jewish-colonised Palestine becoming a 'cornerstone' of the British Empire. However, most British officials in the Middle East sympathised with the native Palestinians who opposed Jewish immigration.
A fundamental tension emerged within British administration: politicians in London generally sympathised with Jewish aspirations, whilst officials on the ground in the Middle East tended to support Palestinian opposition to immigration. This division complicated the formulation of consistent policy.
Jews and their supporters prevailed initially. By 1925, considerable Jewish immigration into Palestine had occurred, and many Jews made clear their intention to transform the 'national home' into a Jewish nation-state. In 1929, serious anti-Jewish riots broke out across Palestine. A 1930 White Paper proposed limiting future Jewish immigration. This proposal aroused substantial opposition in pro-Jewish circles in Britain and the USA, resulting in no action being taken on its recommendations.
Jewish-Palestinian conflict
Hitler's rise to power in 1933 and the subsequent persecution of European Jews created additional pressure to increase Jewish immigration. Palestine became viewed as both a Jewish sanctuary and a homeland. Increased immigration provoked intensifying Arab opposition. In 1936, an Arab revolt erupted, directed against Jews, the British administration and moderate Arab leaders. Britain deployed troops to Palestine to maintain control.
The situation by 1939
In 1937, the Peel Commission recommended partitioning Palestine into an Arab state and a Jewish state, with a British buffer zone between them. However, it proved impossible to devise a workable partition plan. In 1939, Britain abandoned the partition concept, which had proven unpopular with Palestinians. Instead, officials considered establishing an independent federated Palestinian state.
Britain's Final Pre-War Policy Shift
Facing the prospect of war in Europe, Britain dramatically reversed course in 1939:
- Abandoned partition plans that had proven unworkable
- Severely restricted Jewish immigration to 10,000 people annually for five years (plus 25,000 in the first year)
- Required Arab approval for any immigration after five years
- Aimed to preserve an Arab majority in Palestine
This policy prioritised maintaining Arab support as war approached, effectively sacrificing Jewish interests.
Meanwhile, Jewish immigration would be limited to 10,000 people annually for five years, with an additional 25,000 permitted in the first year. After this period, no further immigration would be allowed without Arab approval. This arrangement would preserve an Arab majority in Palestine for the foreseeable future. With war looming in Europe, Britain proved anxious not to alienate Arab opinion.
Key Points to Remember:
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Britain's post-1919 Middle East control depended on managing Anglo-Arab relations and operating through friendly local rulers to avoid provoking revolts
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Egypt gained independence in 1922 but Britain retained control over foreign policy, defence and the Suez Canal, formalised in the 1936 treaty allowing 10,000 troops in the Canal zone
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Iraq became independent in 1930 after Faisal was installed as king in 1922, but British military bases remained, showing Britain's preference for indirect control
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The 1917 Balfour Declaration's vague promise of a Jewish 'national home' created irreconcilable conflicts between Jewish immigration and Arab opposition
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By 1939, Britain abandoned partition plans and severely restricted Jewish immigration (10,000 annually for five years) to preserve Arab majority and avoid alienating Arab opinion before war