Overview and Revision (AQA A-Level History): Revision Notes

Key Terms

This glossary provides essential definitions for understanding the British Empire period from 1857 to 1967. Each term has been carefully explained to support your study of imperial governance, colonial relationships, economic policies, and the processes of decolonization.

A

Afrikaans refers to the language spoken by Boers, derived from Dutch and meaning 'African-Dutch'. This language developed in southern Africa and became distinct from European Dutch through contact with indigenous languages and isolation from the Netherlands.

Afrikaner describes a person born in South Africa who was of Dutch or Boer ancestry. Afrikaners formed a substantial white community with distinct cultural and linguistic identity, which became central to South African politics.

Annexation means the permanent seizure of territory by one state from another. This process involved formal incorporation of land into an empire, often justified through treaties, conquest, or claims of terra nullius.

Apartheid was the system of racial segregation and separate development enforced in South Africa from 1948 to 1994. Under this policy, different racial groups were legally separated in residence, education, employment, and political rights.

Autocratically describes non-democratic governance where power is concentrated in the hands of a single ruler or small elite. Such rule typically occurred without elected representation or popular consent.

B

Bantu originally referred to African peoples sharing related languages. During the apartheid period, white authorities used 'Bantu' or 'native' as terms for black Africans, frequently in ways that diminished their status and rights.

Boers were people of Dutch origin who migrated to and settled in southern Africa. They established farming communities and later republics, coming into conflict with both indigenous African populations and British imperial forces.

Breech-loading describes firearms that loaded ammunition at the rear of the barrel rather than down the muzzle, similar to a musket. This technological advance significantly increased firing rates and military effectiveness during colonial conflicts.

C

Cession involves the formal transfer of territory or the relinquishment of power from one state to another. This process typically occurred through treaties following wars or through negotiated agreements.

Chanak crisis was an international confrontation in 1922 that nearly resulted in war between Britain and Turkey. The crisis highlighted tensions within the British Empire as dominions refused to automatically support British military action.

Cold War describes the ideological, political, and occasionally military rivalry between the United States and its allies versus the USSR and its allies following the Second World War. This conflict shaped decolonization as both superpowers competed for influence over newly independent states.

Colonial Service comprised officials and administrators who worked for the British Colonial Office, implementing imperial policy across dependent territories. These individuals formed the backbone of colonial administration, managing everything from taxation to legal systems.

Commonwealth represents an association of states connected by shared historical links to the British Empire. Member states cooperated on various issues while maintaining their sovereignty, creating a looser structure than the formal empire.

Confederation describes an arrangement where multiple states permanently unite through treaty while retaining certain local powers. This model allowed for coordinated action on shared concerns while preserving regional autonomy.

Conscription means compulsory enrollment for military service or for work in particular sectors of the economy. Britain implemented conscription during both world wars, and various colonies faced labour conscription.

Customs union establishes free trade among member states while maintaining a shared tariff policy toward non-member states. This arrangement facilitated imperial economic integration while protecting against external competition.

D

Deficit occurs when expenditure exceeds revenue within a given period. Colonial governments often ran deficits, requiring loans from Britain or increased taxation of local populations.

Dervishes were members of Islamic groups who resisted Egyptian and British control in Sudan during the late nineteenth century. Led by the Mahdi, they established an independent state that defeated Egyptian-British forces before eventually being reconquered.

Devolution involves the transfer of powers from a central authority to regional or local bodies. This process allowed for varying degrees of self-governance while maintaining overall imperial control.

Diarchy represents a governmental system where power is divided between two authorities. In British India, this meant certain responsibilities were transferred to Indian ministers while others remained under British control, creating an arrangement meant to prepare for eventual self-government.

Dominions were Britain's self-governing colonies, including Australia and Canada. These territories managed their own internal affairs while nominally recognizing British sovereignty, representing the most autonomous form of colonial status before independence.

Dumping describes the practice of selling commodities abroad below production costs to eliminate overseas competition. This predatory pricing strategy allowed imperial powers to destroy local industries and create dependencies on imported goods.

E

East India Company was the commercial enterprise that wielded substantial political authority in India during the eighteenth and early nineteenth centuries. Operating as both trading company and governing power, it established the foundations of British rule before the Crown assumed direct control in 1858.

Emir refers to a North African chieftain or military commander. Such figures often negotiated relationships with imperial powers, sometimes maintaining authority within colonial systems.

Entente means an informal understanding between states that does not constitute a binding treaty obligation. Such arrangements allowed for cooperation without formal alliance commitments.

Envoy describes a diplomat dispatched to conduct negotiations with a foreign government. Envoys played essential roles in establishing treaties and managing relationships between the empire and other powers.

Evangelists were individuals dedicated to spreading religious beliefs they considered beneficial. Christian missionaries operated throughout the empire, often working alongside colonial administrations while sometimes criticizing imperial practices.

Executive power encompasses the authority to govern, administer, and implement policy. In colonial contexts, this power typically resided with British governors or commissioners rather than elected representatives.

F-G

Free trade describes international commerce conducted without tariff barriers. Britain championed this policy during much of the nineteenth century, believing it would benefit British manufacturing while theoretically allowing all nations to prosper.

Gold Coast was the colonial name for present-day Ghana. The territory became valuable to Britain through its gold resources and position in West African trade networks.

Gross national product (GNP) measures the total value of goods and services produced within a country plus income earned from investments abroad. Economists used GNP to assess colonial economic performance and contribution to imperial wealth.

Guerrilla war involves irregular military forces using harassment tactics rather than conventional pitched battles. Colonial powers frequently faced such resistance, which proved difficult to counter through traditional military means.

H-I

Hinterland refers to inland territory lying behind coastal regions. Control of hinterlands became contested during the scramble for Africa as European powers sought to extend their authority beyond initial coastal settlements.

Holocaust describes Hitler's systematic attempt after 1941 to exterminate European Jewry. This genocide influenced post-war international relations and accelerated demands for self-determination.

Indenture involved written contracts binding workers and employers for extended periods. Indian indentured labourers migrated throughout the empire under such agreements, often facing exploitative conditions.

Indian National Congress began as an organization of educated Indians but evolved into the primary political movement campaigning for home rule and ultimately independence. Under leaders like Gandhi and Nehru, Congress mobilized mass support for ending British rule.

Indigenous describes peoples native to the regions they inhabit. Indigenous populations faced displacement, exploitation, and cultural suppression under imperial rule.

Industrial Revolution transformed economies through the shift from domestic handicraft production to factory-based manufacturing using mechanized processes. This revolution began in Britain and fundamentally altered the scale of production, creating both the capacity and perceived need for imperial expansion.

I-J

Irish Home Rule advocated for Ireland having its own parliament while remaining constitutionally linked to Britain. This movement generated intense political conflict, with unionists opposed to any separation and nationalists demanding greater autonomy or full independence.

Jewel in the crown was the metaphorical description of Britain's most valued possession. India held this status due to its population, resources, and strategic position.

Jingoism means aggressive patriotism, particularly regarding foreign policy. The term emerged during the 1870s from a popular song threatening war with Russia, with lyrics proclaiming 'We don't want to fight but by Jingo if we do; We've got the ships, we've got the men; we've got the money too.'

K-L

Khaki fever referred to public enthusiasm for British soldiers, who wore khaki (brownish) uniforms. This phenomenon reflected popular support for imperial military actions.

Laissez-faire articulates the principle that governments should avoid interfering in economic affairs. This doctrine influenced British colonial policy, though in practice authorities frequently intervened to protect imperial interests.

League of Nations was the international organization established in 1919 to maintain world peace following the First World War. Similar to today's United Nations, it assigned mandates over former German and Ottoman territories rather than allowing straightforward annexation.

Little Englanders opposed British imperialism, arguing that the empire imposed unnecessary costs and obligations. This perspective contrasted sharply with the dominant enthusiasm for imperial expansion.

M

Mandate described power granted by the League of Nations to govern and protect particular territories. Britain received mandates over former Ottoman territories in the Middle East and former German colonies in Africa, supposedly administering them toward eventual self-government rather than as permanent possessions.

Manifest destiny expressed the belief that American expansion westward during the nineteenth century fulfilled divine will. This concept paralleled British justifications for imperial expansion, though with different theological and nationalist frameworks.

Martial law involves military authorities assuming control during emergencies, temporarily replacing civilian administration and ordinary legal processes. Colonial governments declared martial law during uprisings or other threats to imperial control.

Mercantilism represented the economic theory dominant in seventeenth and eighteenth-century Europe, arguing that national wealth depended on accumulating precious metals and maintaining favourable trade balances. Colonies were valued for providing raw materials and markets while strengthening the mother country relative to competitors.

Middle East describes the predominantly Turkish and Arabic-speaking region around the eastern Mediterranean and Arabian Peninsula. This area gained strategic importance through its position on routes to India and later through petroleum resources.

Missionary refers to individuals dispatched to convert populations to particular religious beliefs. Christian missionaries operated throughout the empire, establishing churches, schools, and hospitals while working to replace indigenous religious practices.

Mother country meant the home nation of colonists, remaining their primary political and cultural reference point. This term reflected assumptions that settlers maintained fundamental ties to Britain despite living overseas.

Mughals established a Muslim dynasty that controlled much of India from 1526 until 1858. The East India Company initially operated under Mughal authority before gradually usurping power, with the 1857 rebellion marking the final collapse of Mughal rule.

N-O

Northern Rhodesia was the colonial designation for modern Zambia. The territory was named after Cecil Rhodes, the mining magnate who promoted British expansion in southern Africa.

Ottoman Empire comprised the vast territories controlled by the Ottoman Turks, centered in the Middle East. British policy alternated between supporting Ottoman integrity to block Russian expansion and seizing Ottoman territories when advantageous, particularly after the First World War.

P

Pass laws were regulations restricting movement of black people in South Africa. These laws required Africans to carry documentation justifying their presence in areas reserved for whites, forming part of the apartheid system's mechanisms of control.

Passive resistance involved deliberately refusing to comply with laws or regulations while accepting resulting penalties. Gandhi developed this strategy, arguing that non-violent non-cooperation would eventually make colonial rule unsustainable.

Paternalistic describes systems where supposedly benevolent supervision treats recipients as incapable of self-governance. Colonial authorities frequently justified their rule through paternalistic claims of preparing subject peoples for eventual self-government while denying them current autonomy.

Portuguese East Africa was the colonial name for modern Mozambique. Portugal maintained control of this territory until independence in 1975, longer than most European colonies in Africa.

Protectionism involves establishing high import tariffs to shield domestic industries from foreign competition. Britain generally opposed protectionism during its industrial dominance but faced growing protectionist sentiment as competitors industrialized.

Protectorates were territories effectively controlled by Britain but not formally annexed. Local rulers theoretically retained power while British officials made actual decisions, providing the appearance of indirect rule.

R

Raison d'être means fundamental purpose or justification for existence. Various arguments served as the raison d'être for imperialism, from economic advantage to civilizing missions.

Raj encompasses British authority over India from 1858 to 1947. More than simply governmental structures, the Raj involved particular attitudes, lifestyles, and hierarchies that characterized British presence in the subcontinent.

Rajahs were Indian and other Asian princes or monarchs. Some rajahs accommodated British authority to preserve their positions, while others resisted imperial encroachment.

Rand millionaires describes British and German magnates who accumulated enormous fortunes from Transvaal gold mines. The rand was the Boer currency, and these mining interests influenced British policy toward South Africa.

Reservations designated areas of land set aside for particular groups. This practice removed indigenous peoples from territories desired by settlers while supposedly providing them protected spaces.

S

Satellite states are nations that depend upon and follow the direction of more powerful states. During the Cold War, Eastern European countries functioned as Soviet satellites, while Western powers competed for influence over former colonies.

Scorched-earth policy involved destroying agricultural resources, livestock, and infrastructure to deny them to enemies. British forces employed such tactics against Boer populations during the South African War, interning displaced civilians in concentration camps.

SEATO stands for the South-East Asian Treaty Organization, established in 1954. This alliance aimed to contain communist expansion in Asia, reflecting how Cold War dynamics influenced decolonization.

Self-determination means the principle that peoples or nations should control their own governmental systems. This concept gained prominence after the First World War and became central to anti-colonial movements, though imperial powers selectively applied it.

Southern Rhodesia was the colonial name for modern Zimbabwe. White settlers maintained control longer than in most African colonies, unilaterally declaring independence in 1965 to preserve minority rule.

Sovereignty refers to supreme political authority. Debates over where sovereignty resided—in Westminster, in colonial legislatures, or in indigenous peoples—shaped constitutional conflicts throughout the empire.

Suzerainty means holding ultimate authority over another political entity. Britain claimed suzerainty over various territories where local rulers ostensibly governed while British officials retained final control.

T-U

Third World described developing countries in Africa, Asia, and Latin America that aligned with neither the USA nor the USSR during the Cold War. These nations often emerged from colonial rule and faced economic challenges.

Uitlanders were white foreigners, particularly British settlers, living in the Transvaal and Orange Free State. Their demands for political rights contributed to tensions preceding the South African War (1899-1902).

USSR stands for the Union of Soviet Socialist Republics, formed in 1922. Soviet anti-colonialism complicated British efforts to maintain imperial control during the Cold War, as the USSR supported independence movements.

Z

Zionists were Jewish nationalists seeking to establish a homeland in Palestine. British policy toward Zionism shifted from initial support (Balfour Declaration, 1917) to restriction (White Papers, 1930s-1940s) as authorities tried to balance competing claims to Palestine.