The Empire, 1964–7 (AQA A-Level History): Revision Notes

The Empire, 1964–7

Introduction

By 1964, the majority of Britain's colonial territories had achieved independence. However, the process of decolonization remained incomplete. Several regions continued to pose diplomatic, military and financial challenges for successive British governments. Moreover, Britain retained substantial military commitments beyond Europe, particularly in the Middle East and Far East, which came under increasing strain as economic pressures mounted.

Southern Rhodesia

Southern Rhodesia was a self-governing British colony in southern Africa with a white minority population controlling the government.

In 1965, the white minority government, unwilling to accept African majority rule, issued a Unilateral Declaration of Independence (UDI) from Britain. No other country recognised this illegal government. Harold Wilson's recently elected Labour administration faced a difficult choice in responding to this constitutional crisis.

Wilson imposed an economic trade boycott on Rhodesia but explicitly ruled out using military force to overthrow the rebel regime. This decision, whilst popular with the British public, attracted considerable criticism. Critics argued that Britain possessed the military capability to remove Ian Smith's government if the political will existed. The refusal to deploy force therefore appeared as a deliberate policy choice rather than practical impossibility.

Southern Rhodesia remained a troublesome problem for Britain for the next fifteen years. South Africa provided support to the Smith regime, which undermined the effectiveness of Britain's economic blockade.

East of Suez

Ironically, whilst Britain withdrew from Africa, the West Indies and the Mediterranean during this period, British governments simultaneously attempted to maintain military and political influence in regions east of the Suez Canal. This area encompassed the Middle East, Persian Gulf, Indian Ocean and Far East.

Both Conservative and Labour leaders, alongside American policymakers, calculated that abandoning Britain's role in these regions would generate instability and create opportunities for communist expansion during the Cold War. Approximately 100,000 British military personnel were stationed east of Suez in the mid-1960s, representing an enormous financial burden. This commitment demonstrated that Britain's imperial retreat was neither swift nor straightforward.

The Federation of Malaysia and South-East Asia

In 1957, the Federation of Malaya achieved independence from Britain whilst maintaining British defence commitments. By 1961, growing communist influence in South-East Asia prompted Britain to support the formation of a larger Federation of Malaysia. This new political entity would incorporate Malaya, Singapore, and the three remaining British colonies in Borneo: North Borneo, Brunei and Sarawak.

Britain undertook to continue the defence obligations originally made in 1957. The Federation was officially established in 1963, though it immediately encountered serious difficulties.

Indonesia, seeking to annex North Borneo and Sarawak for itself, opposed the Federation and attempted to destabilise it through military and diplomatic pressure for three years. Britain provided Malaysia with essential military assistance during this confrontation.

Internal tensions also undermined the Federation's cohesion. In 1965, Singapore separated from Malaysia, primarily because the Chinese majority population in Singapore rejected Malay political dominance over the new state. The separation occurred peacefully but revealed the fragility of the Federation concept.

Aden

During the late 1950s, Aden served as a valuable base for British forces defending British interests in the Middle East and Indian Ocean. The colony functioned as a 'springboard' for power projection across these regions.

However, Arab nationalism posed a growing threat to British control. Aden faced pressure from Arab nationalist movements both externally, particularly from neighbouring Yemen, and from within the colony itself. In 1963, attempting to create a more stable political framework, Britain established the South Arabian Federation. This entity combined Aden with a collection of small, undemocratic sheikhdoms in the surrounding area.

The South Arabian Federation failed to resolve the underlying tensions. Terrorist activity in Aden intensified throughout the mid-1960s. After a prolonged and increasingly futile struggle, Britain finally abandoned the base in late 1967.

The 1967 retreat

In November 1967, intense pressure on sterling forced the British government to devalue the pound by fifteen per cent. Harold Wilson responded to this economic crisis by appointing Roy Jenkins as Chancellor of the Exchequer. Jenkins was an enthusiastic supporter of European integration and a determined opponent of Britain's post-imperial military commitments.

Facing substantial opposition, Jenkins successfully pushed through the decision to terminate Britain's military presence in both the Persian Gulf and South-East Asia by 1971. This withdrawal marked the effective end of Britain's status as a global military power.

Nevertheless, the Empire did not disappear entirely. Britain retained several colonial possessions after 1967:

• Numerous small territories too limited in size to function as independent sovereign nations
• Strategic military bases, most notably Gibraltar
• Southern Rhodesia (though the illegal Smith regime controlled the territory)
• The Falkland Islands
• Hong Kong (held under lease from China until the agreement expired in 1997)

The fate of newly independent states

Leaders of the newly independent nations, particularly in Africa, expressed confidence that independence would bring economic prosperity. Most adopted economic policies organised along broadly socialist principles. The reality proved disappointing.

Ambitious development projects consistently failed to deliver expected results. Throughout most former colonies, small groups of corrupt officials accumulated personal wealth whilst their populations gained no material benefit. Some territories rapidly became single-party states or military dictatorships. Ethnic, regional and religious divisions plagued many African countries. Nigeria experienced a devastating civil war between 1967 and 1970, resulting in enormous loss of life.

However, not all former colonies encountered such difficulties. Some territories successfully maintained Britain's governmental model, particularly in the Caribbean. Malaysia and Singapore achieved notable economic success, establishing themselves as prosperous trading nations.

The Commonwealth

Between 1960 and 1966, twenty-three newly independent countries joined the Commonwealth. British governments actively promoted the Commonwealth during this period, presenting it as a multiracial association that would benefit all member states.

The optimistic expectations underpinning the Commonwealth concept were not fulfilled. As early as 1964, The Times newspaper described the Commonwealth as "a gigantic farce". The organisation struggled to demonstrate practical value beyond symbolic association.

Government attempts to promote the Commonwealth often served as a means of concealing the reality of declining British power and sustaining British prestige after the loss of Empire. Conservative politician Enoch Powell offered a particularly harsh assessment, characterising the Commonwealth as "a sticking plaster for the wound left by the amputation of Empire". This metaphor suggested that the Commonwealth represented an inadequate attempt to mask a painful and irreversible loss rather than a genuine new partnership.

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