Conflict at Home and Abroad: Domestic Policies (AQA A-Level History): Revision Notes

Nixon and Watergate

Introduction

Richard Nixon's presidency remains one of the most controversial in American history. Although he achieved notable successes in foreign policy and made some progress on domestic issues, his time in office became defined by the Watergate scandal. This affair ultimately led to his resignation in August 1974, marking the first time an American president left office in this manner. The scandal raised profound questions about presidential power, political ethics, and the health of American democracy.

Nixon's political career

Born in California in 1913, Nixon built his reputation as an ambitious politician with a talent for legal argument and political strategy. His rise through the political ranks began in the late 1940s when he won election to Congress (1946) and subsequently secured a Senate seat in 1950. During this period, Nixon established himself as a fierce anti-communist, participating prominently in the McCarthy-era investigations that targeted suspected communists in government and society.

Nixon's national profile grew when Eisenhower selected him as vice-president, a position he held from 1953 to 1961. Despite a narrow loss to Kennedy in the 1960 presidential election, Nixon remained politically active. He demonstrated considerable political resilience, returning to win the presidency in both 1968 and 1972. Throughout his career, Nixon cultivated a reputation for seeing conspiracies against himself and the United States, which fostered a secretive and suspicious approach to governance. His primary focus remained foreign affairs, where he achieved more success than in domestic policy.

The 1968 presidential election

The 1968 election occurred against a backdrop of deep national division. American society appeared fractured, with young people increasingly questioning traditional institutions and values, particularly regarding the ongoing Vietnam War. The contest pitted Nixon against Hubert Humphrey, who had served as vice-president under Lyndon Johnson.

Nixon secured victory by winning 302 electoral college votes compared to Humphrey's 191, a margin achieved with approximately 500,000 more popular votes. His campaign strategy centered on appealing to Middle America, a term describing the traditional, conservative middle classes who felt alienated by recent social changes. These voters worried about the expansion of federal programmes under the Great Society and the urban riots that had erupted in black inner-city areas. Nixon promised to restore "peace with honour" regarding Vietnam whilst projecting an image of stability and order.

Humphrey's campaign suffered from his association with Johnson's policies. He advocated continuing both the Vietnam War and Great Society programmes, positions that proved unpopular with many voters. Furthermore, the Democratic National Convention in Chicago witnessed violent clashes between police and left-wing protesters outside the convention venue, reinforcing the perception that the Democratic Party had lost control of its own coalition and could not maintain social order.

Domestic policy achievements and limitations

Nixon's domestic record proved mixed, constrained by his greater interest in foreign affairs and the opposition he faced from a Democrat-controlled Congress. His conservative instincts meant he approached domestic reform cautiously, yet he did not entirely dismantle the social programmes inherited from previous administrations.

Nixon attempted to reform welfare through the Family Assistance Plan (FAP), which represented his most ambitious domestic proposal. This plan sought to replace the complex array of benefits introduced under the Great Society with a simpler system providing a direct payment of $1,600 to poorer families. Congress rejected this proposal, viewing it as either too expensive or insufficiently generous, depending on political perspective. Despite this setback, federal spending on social programmes actually increased during Nixon's tenure, suggesting continuity with Great Society policies despite his rhetorical opposition to them.

Economic policy measures

Nixon confronted considerable economic difficulties, particularly rising inflation driven by excessive government spending on both the Vietnam War and domestic programmes. His initial approach involved attempting to control borrowing by individuals and businesses, hoping to dampen demand and reduce price pressures. When this strategy failed to produce results, Nixon implemented more dramatic interventions in 1971.

The administration introduced a 90-day freeze on both wages and prices, hoping this temporary measure would break inflationary expectations and encourage consumers to increase their spending. Following this freeze, Nixon established two new bodies to maintain ongoing controls:

• The Pay Board limited wage increases to 3.5%
• The Price Commission restricted price rises to 2.5%

These measures reflected a surprisingly interventionist approach from a president who claimed to support free-market principles.

Nixon also devalued the dollar, reducing its value relative to other major currencies. This policy aimed to make American exports cheaper and more competitive internationally, thereby improving the country's trade deficit by encouraging foreign purchases of American goods. These combined measures produced a temporary economic improvement, which helped Nixon politically heading into the 1972 election.

The 1972 presidential election landslide

Nixon won the 1972 election with overwhelming success, achieving the greatest electoral triumph by any Republican candidate up to that point. He secured 47 million votes against 29 million for his Democratic opponent, George McGovern. Several factors contributed to this landslide victory.

The temporary economic boom created by Nixon's economic measures gave many Americans confidence in his management of domestic affairs. Additionally, the Vietnam War appeared to be approaching its conclusion, addressing one of the most divisive issues in American politics. Nixon had also scored notable foreign policy achievements, particularly his historic visits to China and the USSR, which enhanced his stature as an international statesman. These successes made Nixon relatively popular, and McGovern proved unable to mount an effective challenge.

The Watergate scandal: Origins and the break-in

The scandal that would destroy Nixon's presidency originated in his anxiety about re-election, despite his eventual landslide victory. In 1972, concerned about the possibility of defeat, Nixon's supporters established CREEP (Committee to Re-Elect the President). This organization operated with minimal oversight and received encouragement to employ whatever methods proved necessary to ensure Nixon's re-election. The committee had $350,000 available specifically for conducting "dirty tricks" against political opponents.

Initial investigations quickly revealed these were not ordinary burglars but operatives attempting to plant surveillance devices. Two reporters from the Washington Post, Carl Bernstein and Bob Woodward, pursued the story with determination. Their investigation uncovered that all five burglars worked for CREEP and that the organization received direct control from the White House.

Nixon vehemently denied any personal involvement or knowledge of the break-in. His advisers maintained the same position, and this denial appeared credible enough that the scandal did not prevent Nixon's landslide victory in the November 1972 election.

The Watergate scandal: Investigation and unraveling

The legal consequences began unfolding in January 1973 when the Watergate burglars faced trial and received convictions. In March 1973, James McCord, one of those convicted, made a statement in court alleging a White House cover-up. Nixon continued denying any knowledge of the illegal activities. However, he conceded that two senior advisers, Bob Haldeman and John Ehrlichman, had been involved in the affair. Both men resigned their positions.

The Senate established a committee to investigate the scandal, which conducted televised hearings between May and November 1973. During this period, it became increasingly apparent that White House officials at high levels had participated in the conspiracy. John Dean, another senior aide, claimed that Nixon himself had directed the cover-up operation.

Initially, Nixon refused to produce these tapes. Eventually, he handed over seven of the nine requested recordings, but these had undergone heavy editing. One tape notably contained eighteen minutes of missing content. Under mounting pressure, Nixon finally released all the tapes without editing.

The tapes proved damaging beyond Nixon's worst fears. They revealed his direct involvement in the dirty tricks campaign and demonstrated that he had repeatedly lied throughout the investigation. The recordings also shocked the nation due to the frequent use of profane language, indicated in transcripts by the phrase "expletive deleted" appearing at regular intervals, exposing a side of presidential conduct that contradicted Nixon's public image.

The Watergate scandal: Consequences

In July 1974, Congress voted to impeach Nixon, meaning he would face trial with the Senate acting as jury. Rather than endure this process, Nixon announced his resignation on 8 August 1974 in a televised broadcast, becoming the first American president to resign from office. His successor, Gerald Ford, issued a decree pardoning Nixon for any criminal acts he had committed whilst president.

Whilst Nixon may have been unfortunate in being caught—previous presidents had almost certainly employed similar tactics without facing such scrutiny—he had abused executive power to a greater extent than his predecessors. The scandal utterly destroyed Nixon's reputation. He acquired the nickname "Tricky Dicky", becoming synonymous with political dishonesty. For many years afterwards, the Watergate scandal overshadowed all his other achievements, both domestic and foreign. His presidency became a cautionary tale about the dangers of unchecked executive power and the corruption that could flourish in secret.

Legislative reforms limiting executive power

The Watergate scandal prompted Congress to pass several measures designed to prevent future abuses of presidential authority and restore public confidence in government:

Impact on American political culture

The Watergate scandal profoundly undermined public confidence in politics and politicians. The revelation that the president had systematically lied to the American people and abused his office for partisan advantage created widespread cynicism about government. This erosion of trust extended beyond Nixon personally to encompass political institutions more broadly.

The 1976 presidential election demonstrated this shift in public mood. Americans voted for Jimmy Carter, who campaigned on a promise of honesty and transparency, specifically pledging never to lie to the American people. Carter's victory reflected the electorate's desire for moral integrity in leadership following the betrayal they felt from Nixon's conduct. The scandal thus had lasting consequences for how Americans viewed their presidents and what qualities they sought in political leaders.