Kennedy and the New Frontier (AQA A-Level History): Revision Notes

Kennedy and the New Frontier

Overview of Kennedy's domestic agenda

John F. Kennedy's domestic policies centred on his New Frontier programme, which aimed to address economic inequality, expand civil rights, and modernise American society. Despite generating enthusiasm and proposing ambitious reforms, Kennedy's brief tenure (1,000 days) and Congressional opposition limited his achievements. His successor, Lyndon B. Johnson, proved more effective in implementing and expanding many of these domestic reforms through the Great Society programme.

John F. Kennedy: background and rise to power

John Fitzgerald Kennedy Born into a wealthy Massachusetts family in 1917, Kennedy received his education at Harvard University. During the Second World War, he served in the US Navy, sustaining serious injuries but earning decorations for bravery. After the war, he entered politics as a Democratic Congressman in 1947. Five years later, he won election to the US Senate.

Throughout the 1950s, Kennedy built his national profile by authoring two best-selling books, including Profiles in Courage, published in 1960. The Democratic Party selected him as their presidential candidate for the 1960 election. Kennedy cultivated a public image as a youthful, dynamic politician suited to the early 1960s. His marriage to the glamorous Jackie Kennedy enhanced this perception, though the public remained unaware of his numerous extramarital affairs at the time.

The 1960 election

The 1960 presidential contest between Kennedy and Republican candidate Richard Nixon (Eisenhower's former vice-president) produced the closest result since 1888, with Kennedy securing victory by merely 118,574 votes. Multiple factors contributed to this narrow win:

Kennedy's Catholic faith likely cost him Protestant votes in the South, yet he retained enough Catholic support to offset these losses.

His family background proved advantageous. As the son of Joseph Kennedy, one of America's wealthiest men, Kennedy enjoyed substantial financial backing for his campaign.

Physical appearance and image worked in Kennedy's favour. At 43, he appeared youthful compared to Nixon, projecting energy and vitality. His attractive wife further enhanced his glamorous image.

Many Americans desired change after the apparent stagnation of the Eisenhower administration (see pages 233-4). Kennedy capitalised on this sentiment by promising a 'New Frontier', though he remained deliberately vague about its precise meaning.

Communist concerns had intensified following the USSR's launch of Sputnik, the first space satellite, in 1957. Kennedy assured voters he would confront Communism more vigorously.

Kennedy also exploited the popularity of civil rights leader Martin Luther King. In October 1960, when King faced arrest for attempting to desegregate a restaurant in Atlanta, Kennedy telephoned King's wife to express support. His brother, Robert Kennedy, used his influence to secure King's release. This action received extensive publicity and helped secure African-American electoral support.

Television played an unprecedented role in the campaign. 70 million viewers watched the four televised debates, with audiences finding Kennedy more impressive than Nixon. Paradoxically, radio listeners believed Nixon had performed better in the debates.

The New Frontier programme

Initially, the New Frontier served as merely a campaign slogan Kennedy employed to inspire and mobilise young Americans. However, it evolved into a comprehensive reform programme through which Kennedy sought to create a fairer American society by advancing equal rights for African Americans and providing them with opportunities for self-improvement. He dubbed it the 'New Frontier' to attract voters, positioning himself and Americans as 'New Frontiersmen' working together to improve their nation.

Kennedy implemented substantial changes to central government to deliver the New Frontier. He assembled a team of exceptionally talented young experts from American universities, most lacking prior government experience. Known as the Brains Trust, Kennedy hoped their youth and fresh perspectives would generate innovative solutions to America's problems.

Civil rights under Kennedy

Kennedy's civil rights record proved mixed. Prior to 1963, he showed considerable hesitancy, primarily because he wished to avoid alienating conservative Southerners whose votes he required to pass other legislation. He appointed five federal judges, including Thurgood Marshall, a prominent civil rights activist. Kennedy also threatened legal action against Louisiana for refusing to fund non-segregated schools.

In October 1962, he deployed 23,000 government troops to ensure that James Meredith, a black student, could study at the University of Mississippi. He introduced a Civil Rights Bill to Congress in February 1963, aiming to establish equality in housing and education for African Americans. However, Congress defeated this measure.

Economic policies

The New Frontier encompassed economic reforms. Kennedy introduced a general tax reduction, reasoning that increased spending would stimulate goods sales. Public works projects costing $900,000,000 commenced. The Federal Government initiated a series of projects including new roads and public buildings. High-tech companies received grants to invest in advanced equipment for worker training.

Kennedy increased defence and space technology spending, which secured or created employment. He also committed to landing a man on the Moon by the decade's end. He imposed limited price and wage controls to prevent inflation spiralling out of control.

Nevertheless, unemployment persisted in traditional industries such as coal, iron and steel, with African Americans experiencing unemployment rates twice as high. Moreover, the economic boom depended heavily on government expenditure.

Social reform

Kennedy actively pursued social reform initiatives:

• He raised the minimum wage from $1.00 to $1.25 per hour.
• The Manpower and Training Act passed, providing retraining for long-term unemployed workers.
• The Area Redevelopment Act authorised the Federal Government to provide loans and grants to states experiencing long-term unemployment.
• The Housing Act offered cheap loans for redeveloping inner cities.
• The Social Security Act extended greater financial assistance to elderly and unemployed citizens.
• Social security benefits expanded to cover each child whose father faced unemployment.

Limitations existed, however. Kennedy planned to establish Medicare, a subsidised state health insurance system, but Congress rejected this proposal. Slum clearance programmes created housing shortages in inner-city areas. Additionally, the minimum wage increase only benefited those already employed, whilst the poorest citizens could not afford to repay housing loans.

Opposition to the New Frontier

Despite Kennedy's party holding majorities in both Congressional houses, he achieved little during his 1,000 days in office. This resulted partly from his own political shortcomings and partly from powerful opposition to the New Frontier. He appeared preoccupied with foreign policy and lacked a clear, coherent domestic programme, with conservatives blocking his piecemeal proposals.

The strongest opposition emerged from Southern Congressmen, including Democrats from his own party, who objected to his commitment to civil rights. They believed that equal rights for African Americans would cost them white votes in the South. Some opposed further expansion of federal government power and increased central government spending. Many still embraced the values of 'rugged individualism' (the belief in self-reliance and limited government intervention - see page 143).

Johnson and the Great Society

Lyndon B. Johnson: background and political expertise

Lyndon Baines Johnson Born in Texas in 1908, Johnson worked as a teacher and witnessed firsthand the poverty afflicting his area, which shaped him into a supporter of social reform. Elected to Congress as a Democrat in 1937, he became a strong advocate of Roosevelt's New Deal. In 1948, he won election as a senator and, within five years, was appointed leader of the Democrats in the Senate.

In 1960, Kennedy selected him as his vice-presidential candidate owing to his accomplished Congressional management. Johnson became president in 1963 following Kennedy's assassination. He chose not to seek re-election in 1968 and died of a heart attack five years later.

Johnson was an experienced politician who understood how to achieve results in Congress and negotiate deals with legislators. He proved far more successful than nearly any other president in securing measures through Congress. Being a Southerner himself, he knew how to manage Southern Democrats and overcome their opposition, particularly regarding civil rights. Some analysts attribute his effectiveness to his imposing physical stature (six feet, five inches), which helped him dominate others.

The Great Society: extending Kennedy's vision

Lyndon B. Johnson served as president from 1963 to 1968. His domestic achievements have often been underestimated and overshadowed due to Kennedy's reputation and US involvement in the Vietnam War.

The Great Society comprised important economic and social reforms alongside civil rights legislation.

Civil rights under Johnson

Johnson accomplished considerably more in civil rights than his predecessor. The Civil Rights Act of 1964 prohibited discrimination in public places, in federally assisted programmes and in employment. The following year, the Voting Rights Act of 1965 appointed agents to ensure proper implementation of voting procedures. In 1967, the Supreme Court declared all laws prohibiting mixed race marriages must be removed.

Economic reform under Johnson

The Great Society also addressed economic reform. Johnson reduced taxes to provide consumers with additional money to spend, which in turn helped businesses expand and generate more employment. The Appalachian Recovery Programme allocated federal funds for developing the Appalachians, a mountainous region in the Eastern states. The Office of Economic Opportunity established schemes to assist poor people in inner cities. It funded new education and community projects and provided loans for local schemes. These schemes formed the foundation of Johnson's Programme for Poverty.

Manufacturers and retailers were required to label goods fairly and clearly. Consumers gained the right to return defective goods and exchange them. The Johnson administration allocated $1.5 billion to the Head Start Programme, enabling teachers to provide additional education for very young, impoverished children.

Social reform under Johnson

Social reform represented another substantial area of achievement.

The Medical Care Act established Medicare (for elderly citizens) and Medicaid (for the poor). This constituted an attempt to ensure all Americans had equal access to healthcare.

Key dates

Date	Event
October 1962	Kennedy deployed 23,000 government troops to ensure James Meredith could study at the University of Mississippi
February 1963	Kennedy introduced the Civil Rights Bill to Congress
November 1963	Kennedy assassinated in Dallas
1964	Johnson's Civil Rights Act passed
1965	Voting Rights Act passed

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