Foreign and Imperial Policies (AQA A-Level History): Revision Notes
Foreign and Imperial Policies
Isolationism and the gradual shift toward engagement
The 1870s and 1880s witnessed the USA largely maintaining its traditional isolationist stance, demonstrating relatively minimal interest in overseas affairs or territorial expansion. However, beneath this surface continuity, voices within political circles increasingly advocated for a more assertive foreign posture. Growing numbers of politicians and military officials argued that the USA required an expanded navy to defend American possessions and assert the nation's standing as an emerging world power. This period therefore represents a transitional moment, where isolationism remained dominant policy but faced mounting challenges from those who believed naval strength and overseas bases were necessary for American security and prestige.
This era represents a crucial turning point in American foreign policy—while isolationism remained the official stance, the foundations were being laid for America's emergence as a global power in the decades to come.
Navy expansion and the case for sea power
The deteriorating state of the American navy
During the administration of President Chester Arthur (1881-1885), politicians and naval officials became increasingly alarmed by the condition of the United States Navy. In 1882, Secretary of the Navy William H. Hunt commissioned a comprehensive review of naval capabilities. The findings proved embarrassing: of 140 ships on the naval register, merely 42 remained operational. More troubling still, the fleet consisted overwhelmingly of obsolete wooden sailing vessels rather than modern steamships. Among the handful of steam-powered warships, only seventeen existed, and fourteen of these dated from the Civil War era, making them outdated by contemporary standards. Representative John D. Long of Massachusetts captured the navy's inadequacy when he dismissed it as 'an alphabet of floating tubs', a description that underscored both the poor condition of vessels and their unsuitability for modern naval warfare.
Critical Naval Deficiency: In 1882, only 42 of the 140 ships on the naval register remained operational—a shocking revelation that highlighted America's military vulnerability and inability to project power overseas.
Hunt and other naval advocates argued that without a capable navy, the USA could achieve little influence in international affairs during an age when naval power determined global standing. They contended that military force backed diplomatic initiatives, and that a nation lacking naval strength could neither protect its commercial interests nor project power beyond its shores. This reasoning gained traction during Arthur's presidency, initiating debates about naval modernization that would intensify through subsequent administrations.
Captain Alfred Thayer Mahan's influential naval theories
The most intellectually substantial advocate for naval expansion emerged in Captain Alfred Thayer Mahan, whose writings provided both historical justification and strategic rationale for American sea power. In 1890, Mahan published The Influence of Sea Power Upon History, followed two years later by The Influence of Sea Power Upon the French Revolution and Empire. These works became extraordinarily influential, shaping naval policy debates not only in America but across the world's major powers.
Mahan contended that historical evidence demonstrated a clear pattern: nations possessing powerful navies and overseas bases to support them experienced growth in strength and international influence, whilst those without naval capacity declined or stagnated. He advocated constructing a modern fleet of steam-powered warships, establishing coaling stations where vessels could refuel during extended voyages, and securing naval bases in strategic locations such as the Caribbean and Pacific Ocean. Furthermore, Mahan proposed cutting a canal across Latin America to enable rapid naval movement between the Atlantic and Pacific, thereby reducing transit times and enhancing American ability to respond to threats or opportunities in either ocean.
Mahan's Lasting Impact
Mahan's theories influenced not just American naval policy but also shaped the strategic thinking of major powers worldwide, including Britain, Germany, and Japan. His concept of "sea power" became foundational to modern naval strategy and provided intellectual legitimacy for naval expansion programs across the globe.
His arguments provided intellectual legitimacy to those politicians and military officials who sought expanded American engagement overseas, framing naval power not as aggressive imperialism but as necessary modernization.
Hawaii and the establishment of American influence
Economic dependency and strategic location
During the eighteenth century, the Hawaiian Islands served as a convenient way station and provisioning point for merchants, sailors and whalers conducting trade with Asian nations. This commercial relationship deepened substantially after 1875, when the USA negotiated a treaty granting Hawaiian sugar duty-free entry into American markets. In return, the Hawaiian Government agreed to refuse concessions—meaning favourable trading rights—to other nations for the importation of manufactured goods. This arrangement effectively bound Hawaii to the American economy, creating dependency on access to US markets for Hawaiian sugar producers.
The economic relationship intensified throughout the 1880s as American investment in Hawaiian sugar plantations expanded. By 1887, Hawaii had become so economically reliant on the USA that when the Senate agreed to renew and expand the 1875 friendship treaty, negotiated by Secretary of State Thomas F. Bayard, the Hawaiian Government accepted additional concessions. Most consequentially, Bayard secured permission to establish a naval base at Pearl Harbor on the island of Oahu. This represented a substantial strategic gain for the USA, providing a Pacific Ocean base that could support both commercial shipping and naval operations in the region.
Economic Leverage as Strategic Tool
The Hawaiian example demonstrates how economic dependency could translate into military positioning. The USA used sugar trade agreements to create Hawaiian reliance on American markets, which in turn enabled the acquisition of Pearl Harbor—a strategic asset that would prove crucial in future decades.
Pearl Harbor's acquisition demonstrated how economic leverage could translate into military positioning, foreshadowing later American approaches to establishing overseas influence.
Latin America and Pan-American cooperation
James Blaine's vision for hemispheric leadership
During the 1880s, American politicians expressed heightened interest in Latin America, viewing the region as both a potential market for American goods and an area where the USA might exercise leadership. President James Garfield's Secretary of State, James Blaine, became the foremost advocate of what he termed a Pan-American approach—meaning policies relating to all countries on the American continent. In 1881, Blaine proposed convening a Pan-American conference, arguing that the USA should position itself as leader across the Western Hemisphere to prevent future conflicts between Latin American nations and to promote commercial relationships benefiting all parties. His proposal generated little immediate support and came to nothing during Garfield's brief presidency. However, the concept gained renewed attention when Blaine returned as Secretary of State under President Benjamin Harrison (1889-1893).
The 1889 Pan-American Conference and its limited achievements
In October 1889, delegates from eighteen countries assembled in Washington for the first Pan-American Conference. The conference organizers pursued two principal objectives: establishing a customs union offering free trade across the continent, and creating a system of arbitration—whereby opposing sides in disputes would submit their disagreements to a neutral body for judgment—to prevent future wars between American nations. These ambitions reflected both commercial and diplomatic goals, seeking to expand American trade whilst positioning the USA as a mediator and peacekeeper.
The conference outcomes proved mixed. Delegates eventually agreed to reciprocity agreements—arrangements for mutual tariff reductions—rather than the comprehensive customs union Blaine had envisioned. The arbitration proposal generated more substantial controversy. Many Latin American delegates expressed concern that committing to arbitration might compromise their nations' sovereignty and independence in foreign policy decisions. They feared that a permanent arbitration system would effectively grant the USA and other powerful nations influence over their diplomatic choices. Despite these reservations, delegates did agree to establish an International Bureau of American Republics, which became known as the Pan-American Union, tasked with organizing future conferences and facilitating cooperation.
Sovereignty Concerns and Power Dynamics
Latin American nations' hesitation about arbitration reflected genuine concerns about American dominance. They recognized that while the Pan-American vision promoted cooperation, it also positioned the USA as the hemisphere's primary power—a dynamic that would shape inter-American relations throughout the twentieth century.
Whilst the 1889 conference failed to achieve Blaine's more ambitious objectives, it nonetheless established precedent for future Pan-American gatherings and cooperation mechanisms. The Pan-American Union provided an institutional framework for ongoing diplomatic engagement between American nations, even if its powers remained limited and its effectiveness uncertain. The conference thus represented both the potential and the limitations of American efforts to extend influence in Latin America through multilateral institutions rather than unilateral action.
Key definitions
Concessions: Favourable trading rights granted by one nation to another, typically involving preferential access to markets or resources.
Pan-American: Relating to all countries on the American continent, encompassing both North and South America.
Arbitration: A dispute resolution mechanism where opposing sides agree to submit their disagreement to a neutral third party for judgment, thereby avoiding military conflict.
Key Points to Remember:
- The USA maintained isolationism through the 1870s and 1880s, but calls for naval expansion and overseas engagement grew steadily, particularly during Arthur's administration.
- Captain Alfred Thayer Mahan's publications in 1890 and 1892 provided intellectual justification for naval power, arguing that nations with strong navies and overseas bases achieved greater international influence.
- Hawaii became economically dependent on the USA through the 1875 sugar treaty, enabling America to secure a naval base at Pearl Harbor through the 1887 treaty renewal.
- The 1889 Pan-American Conference, promoted by Secretary of State James Blaine, achieved limited success in establishing free trade and arbitration systems, but created the Pan-American Union as a framework for future cooperation.
- This period represents a transitional moment between traditional American isolationism and the more assertive foreign policy that would characterize the late 1890s and early twentieth century.