Britain and Canada (AQA A-Level History): Revision Notes
Britain and Canada
Overview of Anglo-American relations, 1865-77
Relations between the United States and Britain deteriorated during and immediately after the Civil War. This tension arose primarily from perceived British and Canadian support for the Confederacy. The period 1865-77 saw the USA navigate several disputes with Britain, ranging from compensation claims for wartime damages to cross-border raids and territorial disagreements.
The resolution of these disputes marked a significant turning point in diplomatic relations. By addressing grievances through negotiation and arbitration rather than military confrontation, both nations established important precedents for future conflict resolution.
By 1872, most major Anglo-American disputes had been resolved through negotiation and arbitration, marking an improvement in diplomatic relations.
Confederate ships and the Alabama crisis
During the American Civil War, the Confederacy constructed warships in British dockyards, particularly in Liverpool. These vessels, once manned, equipped and deployed, inflicted considerable damage on Union merchant shipping. The disruption forced insurance premiums for Union merchant vessels to rise sharply.
The most notorious of these ships was the Alabama, built in Liverpool in 1862. This Confederate raider captured or destroyed approximately 40 Union merchantmen during its operational life. The Alabama went to sea from British ports and took 60 prizes, causing extensive commercial losses to Northern shipping interests.
The construction of Confederate vessels in British facilities demonstrated what many Americans viewed as British complicity in supporting the rebellion against the Union government. This issue became a source of lasting resentment that poisoned post-war relations.
American demands for compensation
At the conclusion of the Civil War, the United States government sought compensation from Britain for the damage inflicted by Confederate ships constructed in British dockyards. Senator Charles Sumner, Chairman of the Senate Foreign Relations Committee, initially proposed two options for settling American grievances:
- A direct payment of $2 billion to the United States
- The ceding of all Canadian territory to American control
These demands reflected both the scale of American anger and a degree of opportunistic expansionism. However, they were politically unrealistic.
Understanding Dominion Status
Canada had become a dominion in 1867. A dominion was a self-governing nation within the British Empire, possessing control over its internal affairs while Britain managed foreign and defence policies. This constitutional change meant Canada could not simply be transferred to American sovereignty without Canadian consent.
Britain rejected Sumner's extreme proposals but recognised the need to address American claims through more moderate channels.
The Fenian raids and Anglo-American tensions
A further complication in Anglo-American relations arose from the activities of the Fenians, an Irish republican organisation established in the USA in 1858 that campaigned for Irish independence from Britain. The Fenians consisted largely of Irish-American veterans of the Civil War who possessed military experience and access to weapons.
Between 1866 and 1871, Fenian groups launched a series of cross-border raids into Canada from the United States. The USA initially tolerated these incursions, which Britain interpreted as tacit American support for attacks on British territory.
The Fenian raids served as leverage in the ongoing compensation negotiations, as the USA could threaten to continue allowing them unless Britain met American demands regarding the Alabama claims. This diplomatic pressure tactic demonstrated how domestic political groups could be instrumentalised in international negotiations.
The raids also destabilised the Canadian border and increased tensions between Washington and London. Britain retaliated by allowing these incidents to continue until the broader dispute over Civil War damages was resolved.
The 1872 settlement
In 1872, the British government agreed to pay compensation of $15.5 million to the United States for damage caused by Confederate commerce raiders built in Britain during the Civil War. This settlement represented a compromise that fell far short of Sumner's original demands but acknowledged British responsibility for failing to prevent Confederate ship construction.
Significance of the Settlement
The agreement resolved the most contentious issue between the two nations and removed a major obstacle to improved relations. Britain's willingness to pay demonstrated a desire to normalise Anglo-American relations and avoid future conflicts.
The settlement also ended American tolerance of Fenian activities. Once Britain agreed to compensation, the USA took steps to prevent further cross-border raids into Canada.
The San Juan islands dispute
Beyond the Alabama claims, another territorial dispute complicated Anglo-American relations during this period. The San Juan islands, located between the USA and Canada in the Pacific Northwest, were claimed by both nations.
In 1872, the British Prime Minister William Gladstone and US President Ulysses S. Grant agreed to submit the dispute to arbitration by Kaiser Wilhelm II of Germany. The Kaiser ruled in favour of the United States, and the islands became American territory.
This arbitration demonstrated a willingness on both sides to resolve disputes through diplomatic and legal means rather than force. It established a precedent for peaceful resolution of Anglo-American disagreements, reinforcing the pattern set by the Alabama claims settlement.
Broader context and significance
The resolution of the Alabama claims and other disputes by 1872 marked a turning point in Anglo-American relations. Several factors explain the eventual rapprochement:
Britain recognised the growing economic and military power of the United States and saw value in maintaining peaceful relations with a potentially important ally.
The USA, while still pursuing an isolationist foreign policy in many respects, demonstrated a willingness to engage diplomatically when its interests were directly affected. This selective engagement would characterise American foreign policy for several more decades.
Both nations benefited economically from stable relations, as trade and investment links between Britain and America remained substantial despite wartime tensions.
Shifting Power Dynamics
The disputes of 1865-72 illustrated the USA's growing confidence in asserting its interests against European powers. The willingness of Britain to pay compensation and submit to arbitration reflected a pragmatic recognition that the balance of power in North America had shifted decisively in favour of the United States.
Remember!
Key Points to Remember:
- Confederate ships built in British dockyards, especially the Alabama, damaged Union commerce during the Civil War, creating lasting resentment and compensation claims.
- Senator Charles Sumner initially demanded $2 billion or the ceding of Canada, though these extreme proposals were rejected.
- Fenian raids by Irish-American Civil War veterans into Canada between 1866 and 1871 further strained relations and served as American leverage in negotiations.
- The 1872 settlement saw Britain pay $15.5 million in compensation for the Alabama and other raiders, resolving the major source of post-war tension.
- The San Juan islands dispute was resolved through arbitration by Kaiser Wilhelm II, establishing a peaceful precedent for Anglo-American disagreements.