Domestic Achievements (AQA A-Level History): Revision Notes
Domestic Achievements
Introduction to the Republican presidencies
The Republican Party controlled the White House throughout the 1920s with three consecutive presidents: Warren Harding (1921-23), Calvin Coolidge (1923-29), and Herbert Hoover (1929-33). Harding and Coolidge have generally received negative assessments from historians due to their lack of domestic reform and their adherence to isolationism. However, understanding their specific achievements and failures requires careful examination of their policies and actions.
The 1920s marked a significant shift in American politics, with Republicans promoting a return to limited government and pro-business policies after the interventionist approach of the Wilson administration during World War I.
Warren Harding 1921-23
Election and political context
Harding's selection as the Republican presidential candidate in 1920 surprised many observers. He secured a landslide victory with 60.3% of the popular vote compared to 34.1% for his Democratic opponent, achieving the widest electoral margin in presidential elections since James Monroe's victory in 1820. This result marked the definitive end of the so-called 'Era of Good Feelings' that had followed the First World War.
Background: From Small-Town Publisher to President
Harding came from humble origins in a small Ohio town. As a young man, he rescued a failing newspaper, the Marion Star, from bankruptcy. He served two terms in the Ohio State Senate before becoming a US senator for Ohio in 1914. However, his senatorial career was marked by poor attendance, with Harding missing more sessions than he attended and being absent for debates on prohibition and women's suffrage.
The 1920 election campaign saw Harding face an unexpected opponent. Former President Theodore Roosevelt had been favoured for the Republican nomination, but he died in January 1919. The Democrats selected James M. Cox, a newspaper publisher and Governor. Cox launched an energetic campaign against Senator Harding, but Harding largely ignored Cox and instead campaigned against Woodrow Wilson's legacy, calling for a 'return to normalcy' – meaning a return to nineteenth-century governance with minimal government intervention at home and in foreign affairs. His campaign slogan encapsulated this philosophy: 'We want less government business and more government in business'.
Harding's domestic achievements
Harding accomplished several notable measures during his presidency:
Cabinet appointments: He made several capable appointments to his administration. Andrew Mellon was appointed Secretary of State for the Treasury, Herbert Hoover became Secretary of Commerce, and Charles Hughes served as Secretary of State. These appointments brought competence to federal administration.
Sheppard-Towner Maternity Aid Act: This legislation provided federal aid to states to encourage them to establish infant and maternity health centres, representing one of the few examples of federal welfare intervention during this period.
Budget reform: Harding achieved success in reducing government spending. The Budget and Accounting Act required federal departments to submit their spending plans to the president for approval before implementation. Government spending fell from $5,000 million in 1920 to $3,333 million by 1922, a reduction of approximately one-third.
Worked Example: Calculating Harding's Budget Reduction
Step 1: Identify the spending figures
- Initial spending (1920): $5,000 million
- Final spending (1922): $3,333 million
Step 2: Calculate the reduction Reduction = $5,000m - $3,333m = $1,667 million
Step 3: Calculate the percentage reduction Percentage =
This demonstrates Harding's one-third reduction in federal spending within just two years.
Efficiency in government: Harding attempted to make federal government operations more efficient. He addressed Congress on multiple occasions, calling for an increased federal government role in the economic and social life of the nation.
Limited government philosophy: His belief in minimal federal government intervention aligned with the popular mood of the nation at that time. He achieved his stated aim of returning to a situation where government involvement was kept to a minimum – the 'return to normalcy'.
Harding's shortcomings and failures
Despite these achievements, Harding is frequently described as one of the weakest and least effective presidents. His own personal reputation was damaged by extramarital affairs, at least two of which became public knowledge. He accomplished little genuine reform due to his commitment to 'normalcy' and minimal government intervention characteristic of the nineteenth century.
The Ohio Gang and Corruption Scandals
Harding made several questionable appointments, particularly of members of his 'Ohio Gang' cronies. In 1923, it emerged that extensive corruption had occurred during his administration:
- The Head of the Veterans' Bureau had misappropriated or wasted $250 million in funds
- The Alien Property Custodian had accepted bribes
These scandals revealed the dangers of appointing political loyalists over qualified professionals.
Teapot Dome scandal: The most infamous corruption case involved the secret leasing of federal oil reserves by the Secretary of the Interior, Albert Bacon Fall, during Harding's presidency. In April 1922, Fall secretly granted Harry F. Sinclair of the Mammoth Oil Company exclusive rights to the Teapot Dome (Wyoming) reserves. When this arrangement became public, Congress compelled Harding to cancel the leases. The Supreme Court subsequently declared the leases fraudulent and ruled illegal Harding's transfer of authority to Fall.
Although Harding was not directly implicated in the scandal, it severely damaged his health and reputation. The scandal had limited effect on Republican electoral popularity, as evidenced by the overwhelming victory of Coolidge in the 1924 presidential election. Nevertheless, 'Watergate' in the 1970s and 'Teapot Dome' became synonymous with governmental scandal and corruption.
Calvin Coolidge 1923-29
Succession and election
Harding died on 2 August 1923, and Coolidge, who had served as his vice-president, was immediately sworn in as president. In the presidential election of the following year, Coolidge won a decisive victory. He received credit for restoring economy at home and pursuing isolationist policy abroad, which had begun under Harding and continued during Coolidge's first year in office.
Coolidge benefited from a split within the Democratic Party. The regular Democratic candidate was John W. Davis, a little-known former congressman. However, Davis held conservative views, which prompted many liberal Democrats to abandon the party and support the third-party campaign of Wisconsin Senator Robert M. LaFollette, Sr., who stood as the Progressive Party candidate.
Background: The Steady Rise of Calvin Coolidge
Calvin Coolidge was born in 1872 in the village of Plymouth, Vermont. He qualified as a lawyer in 1891 and nine years later became the Republican town mayor of Northampton, Vermont. His political career advanced steadily: he was elected governor of Massachusetts in 1919 and then became vice-president to Harding after serving as his running mate in the previous year's presidential election campaign. When Harding died in 1923, Coolidge assumed the presidency. He served for one term only, deciding not to stand for re-election in 1928. He died in Northampton, Massachusetts, in 1933 from a heart attack.
Coolidge's qualities and approach
Coolidge cultivated an image as a man of the people, particularly representing small-town America. He held nineteenth-century views, believing in minimal government intervention. 'The business of America is business', he stated. Although criticised for inaction and saying little during his time in office, he delivered more speeches and met more people than any of his predecessors.
Coolidge was popular with the public because he projected confidence and appeared calm and unflappable. He was honest and incorruptible, unlike other presidents, and did not smoke, drink, or pursue women. He was viewed as the dependable pilot at the helm. His election victory in 1924 led to an extension of Republican pro-business policies, characterised by low taxation, low interest rates, and minimum government spending.
Coolidge's failings and limitations
Historians have criticised Coolidge for his low work rate. He slept extensively and said little, earning the nickname 'Silent Cal'. Some scholars believe he suffered a severe depression in 1924 following the death of his son. Others suggest he had a superiority complex and, whilst acknowledging that the USA faced problems, did little to address them. As president, he was determined to do less rather than more than his predecessor. Coolidge refused to stand for re-election as president in 1928 due to health concerns.
The Limits of Inaction
While Coolidge's minimal intervention approach was popular during the prosperous 1920s, historians have questioned whether his refusal to address underlying economic problems contributed to the vulnerabilities that led to the Great Depression. His philosophy of doing "less rather than more" meant that emerging issues in agriculture, banking, and speculation went largely unaddressed.
Evidence of Coolidge's economic philosophy
In a speech delivered at the Fifteenth Meeting of the Business Organisation of the Government on 11 June 1928, Coolidge articulated his economic achievements:
Primary Source: Coolidge on Prosperity (1928)
"I have rejoiced in keeping down the annual budget, in reducing taxes, and paying off the national debt, because the influence of such action is felt in every home in the land. It has meant that the people not only have greater resources with which to provide themselves with food and clothing and shelter, but also for the enjoyment of what was but lately considered the luxuries of the rich. We call these results prosperity. They have come because the people have been willing to do their duty. They have refrained from waste, they have shunned extravagance."
Analysis: This source demonstrates why many Americans considered Coolidge a successful president – he reduced the budget, cut taxes, and paid down national debt, which increased disposable income for ordinary Americans and enabled them to access goods previously considered luxuries.
Key dates: Harding and Coolidge
| Year | Event |
|---|---|
| 1920 | Harding wins the presidential election |
| 1921 | Beginning of Harding presidency; Budget and Accounting Act |
| 1922 | Teapot Dome scandal |
| 1923 | Death of Harding; Coolidge becomes president |
| 1924 | Coolidge wins the presidential election |
| 1928 | Coolidge decides not to stand as president |
Key Points to Remember:
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Harding won a landslide victory in 1920 on a platform of 'return to normalcy', promising minimal government intervention in domestic affairs.
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Harding's domestic achievements included capable cabinet appointments, the Sheppard-Towner Maternity Aid Act, and substantial cuts to government spending (from $5,000m to $3,333m between 1920-22).
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The Teapot Dome scandal exposed corruption in Harding's administration, with the Secretary of the Interior secretly leasing federal oil reserves; this scandal, along with other corruption cases, severely damaged Harding's reputation and legacy.
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Coolidge succeeded Harding in 1923 and won election in 1924, promoting pro-business policies with low taxation, low interest rates, and minimal government spending, embodied in his phrase 'The business of America is business'.
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Both Harding and Coolidge have been criticised by historians for their lack of meaningful domestic reform and their commitment to limited government intervention, though they remained popular with voters who desired a return to pre-war governance.