Roosevelt and Progressivism (AQA A-Level History): Revision Notes

Roosevelt and Progressivism

Roosevelt's accession and the progressive debate

Theodore Roosevelt assumed the presidency in 1901 following the assassination of Republican President William McKinley. Historians disagree about the nature of Roosevelt's progressivism. Some interpret him as a reactionary figure who embraced reforms primarily to forestall more revolutionary change. Others argue that he brought genuine attention to Progressive Movement concerns and believed the federal government should actively intervene in economic matters when circumstances required it.

Anti-trust measures

Roosevelt moved swiftly to address the power of large corporations. In his first State of the Union Address to Congress in December 1901, he declared his intention to confront big business interests. Roosevelt argued that the federal government needed the authority to inspect and investigate major corporations engaged in interstate commerce, emphasising that publicity - making business practices transparent to the public was essential before any regulatory or taxation measures could be determined through proper legal processes.

Roosevelt determined to make this legislation more effective. As early as 1902, he instructed his attorney-general, Philander C. Knox, to initiate legal proceedings against the Northern Securities Company, a vast holding company controlling railroad interests across the northern USA. This action targeted powerful businessmen including Rockefeller and J. P. Morgan, who appeared to exploit their monopoly position to generate excessive profits.

After this success, Roosevelt launched 44 anti-trust prosecutions, including cases against American Tobacco and Standard Oil. Contemporary cartoons depicted Standard Oil as an octopus using its tentacles to ensnare Congress, state legislatures, taxpayers, and even attempting to reach the White House, illustrating public concern about corporate power.

The 1903 Department of Commerce and Labor Act established a new Cabinet-level Department with authority to gather information from businesses engaged in interstate commerce. This data collection proved essential in identifying monopolistic practices and price manipulation. Roosevelt played an important role in securing this legislation's passage, mobilising public opinion to pressure Senators and Congressmen into supporting the measure.

Railroad regulation

The 1906 Hepburn Act granted a federal government commission authority to inspect railroad companies' financial records and establish maximum rates they could charge. This aimed to protect the public from exploitative pricing practices by railroad monopolies.

Labour relations

Roosevelt demonstrated willingness to involve himself directly in industrial conflicts. During the anthracite coal strike of 1902, when miners had withdrawn their labour demanding better wages and an eight-hour working day, Roosevelt summoned both employers and employees to Washington.

Presidents had not previously intervened to obtain justice and fair treatment in labour disputes - this represented an expansion of government's role that aligned with Progressive principles. Whilst this intervention made Roosevelt extremely popular with working-class voters, employers had not willingly conceded but rather capitulated under threat.

Conservation policy

Roosevelt demonstrated remarkable foresight regarding conservation matters well before most contemporaries. He possibly became the first president to recognise that natural resources were finite rather than inexhaustible.

Roosevelt ordered 150 million acres of forest placed under federal reserves with strict enforcement of regulations governing grazing, mining and lumbering activities. In 1908, he convened the National Conservation Conference, which established state-level commissions to monitor environmental protection. Through supporting conservation, Roosevelt appeared to champion ordinary people against mining, timber and oil corporate interests.

Roosevelt also expanded federal oversight of food safety. An Act of 1906 created a federal meat inspection programme. That same year he introduced the Pure Food and Drug Act, which initiated processes to eliminate food adulteration.

Assessment of Roosevelt's presidency

During the final years of his second administration (1906-08), Roosevelt continued acting against major corporations whilst supporting conservation measures. Approximately 120 million acres entered public ownership between 1905 and 1909. In his closing State of the Union message in 1908, he advocated for measures including federal income and inheritance taxes, tighter railroad regulation, and workmen's compensation laws.

One contemporary assessment from the Independent Magazine in 1909 praised Roosevelt for:

• Tackling concentrations of wealth and demanding fair competition
• Purifying civil service and business practices
• Protecting forests
• Resolving labour conflicts with miners
• Investigating agricultural conditions

The article noted that whilst Roosevelt had made many adversaries through his initiatives, he pursued what he considered just causes. He had transformed the presidency whilst confronting enemies he had created.

Key figure: Theodore Roosevelt (1858-1919)

Born into a wealthy New York family in 1858, Roosevelt developed political interests early and joined the Republican Party. In 1880, aged 22, he won election to the New York State Assembly, serving as its youngest-ever member. He subsequently became interested in western territories, taking up cattle ranching in 1883 and serving as deputy sheriff in Dakota before returning eastward to become New York City Police Commissioner from 1895 to 1897.

In 1898 he relinquished this position to participate in the Spanish-American War. The following year he became Governor of New York State before succeeding McKinley as president in 1901. In 1905 he received the Nobel Peace Prize for mediating in the Russo-Japanese War. He died from a blood clot in 1919.

The presidency of William Taft, 1909-12

Roosevelt enjoyed considerable popularity in 1908 and, had he chosen to stand again, would almost certainly have secured re-election. However, he respected the two-term precedent established by George Washington and declined to pursue a third term as president. His successor, William Taft, fought the presidential election campaign against Democrat William Bryan. Taft secured 321 electoral votes and 7,678,908 popular votes compared to his opponent's 162 and 6,409,104 respectively.

Taft did continue certain aspects of Roosevelt's anti-trust policies. His administration initiated 80 anti-trust prosecutions under the Sherman Anti-Trust Act - twice Roosevelt's total - and introduced an eight-hour working day for government employees alongside mine safety legislation. He granted the Interstate Commission authority to establish railroad rates and introduced both federal income tax and corporation tax, measures that later acquired considerable importance in enabling government activism.

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