Position of Women in the 1920s (AQA A-Level History): Revision Notes
Position of Women in the 1920s
Women before 1917
Before American entry into the First World War, women held a subordinate position in society and law. They possessed no voting rights and faced restricted social roles with limited employment opportunities. Their status as second-class citizens meant exclusion from political participation and confinement to narrow domestic and occupational spheres.
Changes after 1917
Impact of the First World War
American participation in the First World War from 1917 created expanded roles for women in the economy and military. The mobilisation of 2.8 million men into the armed forces created labour shortages that over one million women helped address through war work. Approximately 90,000 women served directly in the US armed forces in Europe, predominantly in support roles.
Women's participation in the war effort was unprecedented in American history. The Navy and Marine Corps enlisted women in roles ranging from clerks to radio electricians, chemists, accountants and nurses, demonstrating that women could perform technical and professional work previously reserved for men.
The Army, whilst more conservative in its policies, employed over 21,000 women as clerks, fingerprint analysts, journalists and translators. Women also entered occupations traditionally reserved for men, including heavy industry, engineering works and transport sectors. This wartime participation demonstrated women's capacity to perform jobs previously considered unsuitable for them.
Women's expanded social freedoms during the war years—including smoking and drinking in public settings without chaperones—challenged pre-war conventions. Their wartime contributions provided compelling evidence for advocates of women's suffrage, strengthening arguments that led to the ratification of the Nineteenth Amendment in 1920, which granted American women the right to vote. This constitutional change increased women's political influence and encouraged some to campaign for further reforms.
Consumer boom and labour-saving technology
The economic expansion of the 1920s produced technological innovations that altered domestic life. Labour-saving devices such as vacuum cleaners and washing machines reduced the time required for household tasks, enabling some women to seek paid employment whilst providing others with increased leisure time for recreational pursuits.
Entertainment and media opportunities
The expansion of cinema, radio and dance halls during the Jazz Age created new professional opportunities for women in entertainment. Mary Pickford and Clara Bow achieved stardom in silent films, succeeding sufficiently to establish their own film production company alongside other stars. Mae West, Gloria Swanson and Jean Harlow became prominent figures in 'talkies' (sound films), serving as role models for younger women and representing new possibilities for female achievement.
Employment
Progress in numbers
Employment figures showed measurable advancement. By 1930, two million more women held paid positions compared to a decade earlier. This represented genuine expansion in women's participation in the formal economy.
Limitations and structural barriers
However, this numerical increase masked substantial limitations. The overwhelming majority of new employment opportunities consisted of unskilled, low-paid positions. Despite women earning one-third of university degrees awarded in 1930, only four per cent of university professors were women. Medical schools restricted women to just five per cent of available places, contributing to an actual decline in the number of female doctors during the decade.
Pay Disparities and Legal Barriers
Pay disparities persisted systematically throughout the 1920s. Men received substantially higher wages than women for identical work. The Supreme Court actively supported employers by blocking attempts to establish minimum wages for women workers, reinforcing economic inequality.
In 1927, the federal government sided with employers when women textile workers in Tennessee struck for improved pay, resulting in police arrests of the strikers. This demonstrated how legal and governmental institutions actively worked against women's economic advancement.
New career opportunities that did emerge for women—such as librarians and nurses—were labelled 'women's jobs', typically offering lower status and remuneration than male-dominated professions.
| Jobs | 1900 | 1930 |
|---|---|---|
| Professional and technical workers | 8 | 14 |
| Managers and officials | 1 | 3 |
| Clerical and sales workers | 8 | 28 |
| Skilled craftspeople | 1 | 1 |
| Workers and labourers | 26 | 19 |
| Domestic servants | 29 | 18 |
| Other service workers | 7 | 10 |
| Farmers | 6 | 2 |
The table demonstrates mixed patterns: substantial increases in clerical and sales positions, modest growth in professional roles, but continued concentration in service occupations and minimal representation in skilled trades or management.
Politics
The right to vote
The Nineteenth Amendment granted women voting rights in 1920, representing a constitutional milestone. A small number of women achieved political office. Nellie Tayloe Ross of Wyoming became the first woman elected state governor in 1924. Two years later, Bertha Knight Landes became the first female mayor of a major American city, Seattle.
Limited political advancement
These achievements remained exceptional rather than indicative of broader trends. Political parties valued women's votes but did not regard them as credible candidates for office. By 1920, only a handful of female politicians held positions, and most women demonstrated limited interest in pursuing political careers.
The women's movement failed to secure passage of the Equal Rights Amendment Act, which would have established legal equality between men and women.
Women and birth control
Margaret Sanger's activism
Margaret Sanger, a nurse, drew attention to the circumstances of poor women who lacked access to contraception. Many women resorted to dangerous illegal abortions, which may have caused as many as 50,000 deaths annually. Sanger began writing articles about contraception, but faced legal obstacles.
The Comstock Act Barrier
The Comstock Act of 1873 prohibited the distribution of written materials about contraception and contraceptive devices through the US mail system. This federal law created a massive barrier to women's reproductive health education and access to contraception.
Authorities arrested Sanger in 1916 for opening the first contraception clinic in the USA, demonstrating how the law was actively enforced against reproductive rights advocates.
In 1921, she founded the American Birth Control League to advocate for reproductive rights.
Connection to eugenics
Eugenics—the study of, or belief in, improving human qualities through selective breeding—influenced some birth control supporters. Many advocates of eugenics supported birth control because they believed poor people should be discouraged from reproduction, arguing this would prevent 'race degeneration'. This perspective particularly targeted non-white ethnic groups.
Sanger herself promoted sterilisation for mentally handicapped individuals. The birth control movement has been criticised for these associations with eugenic ideology, highlighting the complex and troubling aspects of this period's reproductive rights advocacy.
The flapper
Characteristics and significance
The most visible change in women's social position manifested through women known as flappers. These women, generally from middle- and upper-class families residing in Northern states, challenged traditional attitudes regarding female appearance and behaviour. Flappers demonstrated greater independence and freedom in their appearance and social activities.
They cut their hair short, wore cosmetics, short skirts and bright clothing. They smoked and consumed alcohol in public settings, attended speakeasies and visited cinemas without chaperones. Flappers danced openly with men in public, particularly the new dance craze, the Charleston. They listened to controversial new music labelled jazz, drove motor vehicles and wore revealing swimming costumes at public beaches. Actress Joan Crawford epitomised the flapper ideal, kissing, drinking, smoking and dancing the Charleston in films such as Our Modern Maidens (1929).
Controversy and opposition
Flappers generated substantial opposition. Many traditional groups, particularly in rural areas, viewed them as excessively radical, with strong disapproval expressed by religious communities. Older generations criticised the flapper lifestyle, establishing Anti-Flirt Leagues in response. Others dismissed flappers as merely pleasure-seeking women lacking serious purpose or substantive attributes.
Historiographical debate
Ongoing Historical Debate
Historians have disputed the extent to which flappers represented genuine progress in women's position during the 1920s. The focus on flappers potentially obscures the realities experienced by most women in the decade—particularly working-class women, women of colour, and those in rural areas who had vastly different experiences.
Writing in 2007, Lucy Moore contrasted post-war opportunities for young women with those of previous generations, providing examples of how women could liberate themselves—whilst acknowledging provisions that most women were still expected to cease employment upon marriage.
Historians writing in the 1990s offered more critical assessments. Michael Parrish argued that even the flapper movement constituted a form of exploitation which reinforced gender stereotypes, as women seemed more preoccupied with indulgence and beauty rather than serious achievements. William Leuchtenberg, writing in the 1950s, presented even sharper criticism, demonstrating that numbers of women in the workforce and higher education actually diminished during the decade, and women showed limited interest in voting.
More recently, Lynn Dumenil has reassessed this interpretation, acknowledging the difficulties women faced whilst demonstrating that both white and African-American women activists exercised influence at state and local levels, particularly regarding social reforms. This historiographical progression reflects evolving understanding of the complexity and limitations of women's advancement during the 1920s.
Key dates
Important Milestones
- 1920: The Nineteenth Amendment granted American women the right to vote
- 1924: Nellie Tayloe Ross of Wyoming became the first woman elected state governor
- 1926: Bertha Knight Landes became the first female mayor of a major American city, Seattle
- 1930: Two million more women held employment positions compared to 1920
Remember!
Key Points to Remember:
- Women gained the vote in 1920 through the Nineteenth Amendment, but political advancement remained minimal with few women in office and the Equal Rights Amendment failing to pass.
- Employment for women increased by two million between 1920 and 1930, but most positions were low-paid, unskilled jobs; substantial pay gaps persisted, and professional opportunities remained severely restricted despite women's educational achievements.
- The First World War created temporary expanded roles, with over one million women in the war effort and 90,000 serving in the armed forces, demonstrating women's capabilities and strengthening arguments for suffrage.
- Flappers represented visible cultural change among middle- and upper-class Northern women, but historians debate whether they reflected genuine progress or concealed persistent inequalities affecting most women.
- Margaret Sanger's birth control advocacy faced legal barriers from the 1873 Comstock Act, and the movement's association with eugenics has generated historical criticism, though she successfully established the American Birth Control League in 1921.