Native Americans (AQA A-Level History): Revision Notes
Native Americans
Context: post-1945 America
Between 1945 and 1960, ethnic minorities in the United States experienced gradual improvements in their status and civil rights. However, Native Americans derived minimal benefit from federal policies during this period, particularly from the termination policy that dominated the 1950s.
While other ethnic minorities saw some progress in civil rights during the 1950s, Native Americans faced a fundamentally different challenge: federal policies actively aimed at dissolving their communities and forcing assimilation, rather than addressing their needs or protecting their rights.
World War II and its impact on Native American communities
During World War II, approximately 25,000 Native Americans served in the armed forces, whilst a further 40,000 worked in war production industries. This wartime participation drew many Native Americans away from reservations, as they lived and worked alongside other ethnic groups in cities and production centres.
By the early 1940s, serious concerns had emerged about the continued viability of reservation life. High poverty levels amongst Native Americans became increasingly unacceptable in a prosperous post-war society. John Collier, the Indian Commissioner, had suggested as early as 1941 that reservation life could not adequately accommodate returning servicemen and their families. The following year, Collier began to advocate for a return to assimilation policies.
The wartime experience fundamentally shifted federal attitudes toward Native Americans. Rather than addressing the poverty and lack of resources on reservations, policymakers concluded that reservations themselves were the problem—a perspective that would drive the disastrous termination policy of the 1950s.
The termination policy
Origins: the Indian Claims Commission (1944)
The Indian Claims Commission was established in 1944 with the stated purpose of offering financial compensation to Native Americans for claims relating to lost lands. However, the commission did not aim to return the lands themselves. The underlying intention was to compensate Native Americans for past exploitation as a preliminary step towards their full integration as American citizens.
President Truman explicitly stated the policy's purpose: "With the final settlement of all outstanding claims which this measure ensures, Indians can take their place without special handicaps or special advantages in the economic life of our nation and share fully in its progress."
The Indian Claims Commission represented a crucial turning point: by offering financial compensation instead of land restoration, the federal government signalled its intention to dissolve the special status of Native Americans and force their integration into mainstream American society.
Implementation: House Concurrent Resolution 108 (1953)
Termination developed fully during President Eisenhower's administration. In August 1953, House Concurrent Resolution, Number 108 announced the termination policy. The resolution declared that reservations should be dissolved and Native Americans encouraged to relocate to urban areas to live as other American citizens.
A Policy Without Consultation
Native Americans were not consulted about these changes. The policy rested on the assumption that federal government would absolve itself of responsibility for Native Americans as a separate group. This lack of consultation demonstrated the paternalistic and dismissive attitude that characterized federal Indian policy during this period.
Under termination:
- Tribal lands would be sold
- Profits would be distributed amongst tribal members
- Native Americans would relocate to urban areas to find employment and live as "normal" US citizens
Specific tribal impacts
Termination commenced with the sale of valuable lands belonging to the Menominee tribe in Wisconsin and the Klamath tribe in Oregon. The entire policy represented a disaster from its inception. Federal government attempted to economise by ridding itself of responsibilities whilst making minimal effort to prepare Native Americans for urban life.
The choice of the Menominee and Klamath tribes was particularly cynical—both tribes possessed valuable timber lands. The termination policy effectively enabled the federal government to liquidate these assets whilst claiming to "liberate" Native Americans from federal oversight.
Outcomes and statistics
The policy produced deeply harmful consequences:
- Many Native Americans who left reservations experienced unemployment and alcoholism
- Some gradually began to return to reservation life
- By 1960, only 13,000 out of 400,000 Native Americans had moved permanently from reservations
- Only three per cent of reservation land had been lost
The Failure of Termination: By the Numbers
The statistics reveal the complete failure of the termination policy:
- Target population: 400,000 Native Americans living on reservations
- Actual permanent relocations by 1960: 13,000 (only 3.25% of the total)
- Reservation land lost: 3% (despite government efforts to sell tribal lands)
These figures demonstrate that Native Americans actively resisted termination, with the vast majority refusing to abandon their communities despite federal pressure and economic incentives.
The policy was formally abandoned, but it created lasting resentment that would manifest in the 1960s through the Red Power movement and more assertive Native American activism. Hispanic communities would similarly develop more confrontational strategies to combat exploitation during the 1960s, though the 1950s witnessed a more passive stance.
Key dates
The following timeline traces the development and failure of the termination policy:
| Year | Event |
|---|---|
| 1941 | John Collier suggests reservation life cannot accommodate returning servicemen |
| 1944 | Indian Claims Commission established |
| 1953 | House Concurrent Resolution, Number 108, announced termination policy |
| 1960 | Only 13,000 out of 400,000 Native Americans had moved permanently from reservations |
Remember!
Key Points to Remember:
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World War II drew 25,000 Native Americans into military service and 40,000 into war production, exposing problems with reservation poverty and viability.
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The 1944 Indian Claims Commission offered financial compensation for lost lands but not their return, as a prelude to assimilation.
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House Concurrent Resolution 108 (1953) announced termination without consulting Native Americans, aiming to dissolve reservations and relocate people to urban areas.
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Termination failed dramatically: by 1960 only 13,000 out of 400,000 Native Americans had permanently relocated, and only 3% of reservation land was lost.
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The policy caused unemployment, alcoholism, and lasting resentment that contributed to the emergence of the Red Power movement in the 1960s.