Background: The USA in 1865 (AQA A-Level History): Revision Notes
Background: The USA in 1865
Introduction
The United States experienced a Civil War from 1861 to 1865 that produced extensive political, economic and social consequences. Understanding the situation in 1865 requires knowledge of the structures and conditions that existed before and during this conflict.
The US political and economic situation
Democratic character of the political system
The United States originated from thirteen colonies along the eastern seaboard that won independence from Britain through war during 1776-83. The nation was the first to establish a constitution – a document containing the rules by which a country is to be governed. The American Constitution originally had seven articles, the first of which described the role of Congress and the second that of president.
During the first half of the nineteenth century, the USA expanded westwards substantially. By 1850, the country included 30 states and extended from the Atlantic to the Pacific. However, pronounced differences developed between the Northern and Southern states after 1850, including cultural and industrial contrasts, the ownership of enslaved people, and the powers of the presidency and federal government compared to those of state governments. These differences would result in the outbreak of civil war in 1861.
By the 1820s, the USA had become considerably more democratic than Britain, with almost all white males possessing the right to vote. This made it one of the most democratic nations in the world at that time.
Structure of the federal system
The USA operated under a federal system of government – a central system of government alongside state governments, with each state having its own powers not subject to interference from central government.
The federal system comprised three branches:
Congress (the Legislative)
Congress made the laws, controlled the purse, declared war and checked the work of the president. Congress consisted of two chambers:
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Senate: Two senators represented each state regardless of size. Senators served six-year terms, with one-third facing election every two years.
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House of Representatives: Members represented constituencies based on population. The House was elected en masse every two years.
Both Houses of Congress needed to agree before a law could be enacted. Congress could override a presidential veto and could impeach and remove the president from office.
The President (the Executive)
The president was elected every four years by the Electoral College, whose representatives were selected by the party with the most votes in each state. If the president resigned or died, the vice-president assumed office.
The Electoral College system meant that presidents were not directly elected by popular vote. Instead, each state's Electoral College representatives voted based on which party won the most votes in that state.
The president served as head of state but also possessed real powers:
- Could call special sessions of Congress
- Could recommend legislation
- Could veto bills
- Appointed ministers (secretaries) who sat in the Cabinet but were forbidden to sit in Congress
- Served as Commander-in-Chief of the armed forces
The Supreme Court (the Judiciary)
The Supreme Court was the highest court, approving laws and deciding whether they were constitutional. The usually nine Supreme Court judges were appointed by the president, with the Senate ratifying these appointments.
State governments
State governments tended to replicate the federal structure, with each state having its own government, legislative body and Supreme Court.
Political parties
By the end of the Civil War, two main political parties existed:
Republicans tended to favour wealth, business and a reduced government role.
Democrats tended to have a wider base of support and favoured more government involvement, especially in social issues.
Weaknesses of federal government
Although political campaigns generated substantial interest and high voter turnouts, government, especially at federal level, had a limited impact on most Americans' lives. The Constitution's system of checks and balances – mechanisms ensuring no single branch of government could dominate – meant that it was extremely difficult for any party to control the presidency, the Senate, the House of Representatives and the Supreme Court simultaneously.
The checks and balances system was so effective that federal government found it extremely difficult to achieve substantial policy changes. This limited federal power became a defining characteristic of American government in the nineteenth century.
The role of federal government and the presidency was further constrained by the widespread belief, particularly among Democrats, that the normal work of government should be carried out at state rather than central level. Issues such as education and public health were seen as the responsibility of state governments. The federal government maintained only a few departments: the State, Treasury, Interior, Navy and the Post Office. The latter employed 30,000 of the over 36,000 people employed by the federal government in 1860.
Presidents often served as figureheads rather than policy-makers. Congress, which was not often in session, passed relatively few laws. American citizens rarely encountered federal officials.
The economy
Historian David Potter described Americans as a "People of Plenty" in the mid-nineteenth century. The country possessed enormous reserves of fertile land, timber and minerals, alongside a network of navigable rivers. The population of the USA increased from 17 million in 1840 to 31 million 20 years later.
Potter's "People of Plenty" concept emphasized how America's abundant natural resources and economic opportunities shaped American identity and development. The country's vast resources created opportunities unavailable in European nations at the time.
Most Americans were farmers, with small family farms typical of all regions. Between 1840 and 1860, food production increased sevenfold, owing to improved farming techniques and the opening of new areas following expansion to the West.
The USA had developed robust transport infrastructure. Steamboat and canal development transformed travel on the great rivers. By 1860, the USA had over 30,000 miles of railroad track, more than the rest of the world combined. America was also on the verge of an industrial revolution, with important advances in textiles, coal, iron and steel and the use of steam power.
Wealth Inequality in 1860
Despite the nation's economic growth and opportunities, extreme inequalities in wealth existed even among white males. By 1860:
- The top 5% of free adult males owned 53% of the wealth
- The bottom 50% owned only 1%
At this time, fewer than one in five Americans lived in towns, although rapid growth occurred in cities such as New York and Chicago.
Differences between the North and South
Economic differences
Pronounced economic and social differences existed between the North and South, some of which contributed to the Civil War of 1861-65.
Economic differences between the North and the South became especially apparent after the Northern states abolished slavery in the early nineteenth century. Population growth was one major difference. By 1860, the original thirteen states of the USA had grown to eighteen free states and fifteen slave states. The North's population was 18.65 million compared to the 10.5 million of the South.
Unlike the South, the North had a growing number of immigrants. In the years 1830-60, most of the 5 million immigrants to the USA settled in the North, which meant that 1 in 30 of its population was foreign born.
Urbanization patterns differed markedly. In the North, a quarter of the population lived in towns. In the South, only one in fourteen did, and there were only twenty towns with 2,000 or more people.
Another major difference was the growth of industry in the North. Increasing internal and foreign trade and improvements in transport by canal, river and road led to the growth of a range of industries such as engineering and textiles.
Key Points to Remember:
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The USA operated under a constitutional federal system with three branches of government (legislative, executive, judicial) and separate state governments, making it more democratic than Britain by the 1820s.
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The system of checks and balances severely limited federal government power, with most domestic policy handled by state governments; federal employment was only 36,000 in 1860.
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The American economy was resource-rich and expanding rapidly, with food production increasing sevenfold between 1840-1860 and over 30,000 miles of railroad track by 1860, though extreme wealth inequality persisted.
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By 1860, stark differences existed between North and South: the North had 18.65 million people versus the South's 10.5 million, with the North far more urbanized (1 in 4 in towns vs 1 in 14) and industrialized.
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Most of the 5 million immigrants between 1830-1860 settled in the North, and Northern industrial growth in engineering and textiles contrasted sharply with the South's agricultural economy.