Reconstruction: Lincoln, Johnson and Grant (AQA A-Level History): Revision Notes
Reconstruction: Lincoln, Johnson and Grant
Context: the aftermath of the Civil War
The Civil War left the United States economically and politically divided. The North experienced prosperity during the war, with total wealth increasing by 50 per cent during the 1860s. In stark contrast, the South was impoverished. The war inflicted $1.1 billion in damage, destroying approximately 40 per cent of pre-war wealth, including 40 per cent of livestock and 50 per cent of farm machinery. The freeing of enslaved people wiped out around $1.6 billion in invested capital. Recovery took over half a century.
The economic devastation of the South was so severe that it would take over 50 years for the region to recover. This stark contrast between Northern prosperity and Southern poverty would shape the entire Reconstruction period and create lasting tensions between the regions.
Politically, the war preserved the Union but deep divisions remained between North and South. The immediate question was how to treat the defeated states. The Emancipation Proclamation of January 1863 initially freed slaves only in areas still in rebellion, but by war's end 3.5 million enslaved people had been emancipated.
What was Reconstruction?
Reconstruction refers to the process of reintegrating the Southern states into the USA and building new social structures in the South to replace the old slavery-based ones. This process began during the Civil War under Abraham Lincoln and continued during the presidencies of Andrew Johnson and Ulysses S. Grant.
Reconstruction involved treating the Southern states and reintegrating them into the Union, as well as the emancipation of enslaved people. It took two different forms: presidential Reconstruction driven by presidents Lincoln, Johnson and Grant, and radical Reconstruction which was controlled by the Republican-dominated Congress.
Two Competing Visions of Reconstruction
The fundamental tension throughout Reconstruction was between presidential and congressional approaches. Presidential Reconstruction favoured leniency and quick restoration of Southern states, while Radical Reconstruction pushed for harsher measures and greater protections for formerly enslaved people. This conflict would define the entire era.
Reconstruction under Lincoln
Problems Lincoln faced
Lincoln confronted several problems in dealing with Reconstruction during and immediately after the Civil War:
How to treat the Southern states: More radical Republicans wanted to impose a much harsher settlement on the South than Lincoln favoured.
What to do with the thousands of ex-slaves: Radical Republicans wanted formerly enslaved people to have the same rights as white Americans, especially the vote. This may have been motivated by a desire to gain African American political support in the South. Lincoln had supported the idea of colonising these ex-slaves but this proved impractical as most refused to participate.
Who would decide the policy of Reconstruction: Would it be Congress or the president? Lincoln felt it was his role but this led to conflict with Congress.
The question of who would control Reconstruction policy—the President or Congress—became a constitutional crisis that would persist throughout the entire Reconstruction period. This struggle over executive versus legislative power had lasting implications for American government.
Lincoln's Ten Percent Plan (April 1864)
Lincoln introduced the Ten Percent Plan in April 1864. Under this plan, rebel states would be admitted if ten per cent of their electorate agreed to an oath of future allegiance to the USA, they supported all existing acts of Congress regarding slavery, and they allowed African Americans to vote. Louisiana met the Ten Percent rule and was admitted to the Union.
The Wade-Davis Bill (June 1865)
Radical Republicans were dissatisfied with Lincoln's lenient approach. Two radical Senators, Henry Winter Davis and Benjamin Wade, introduced the Wade-Davis Bill in June 1865. This required 50 per cent of the electorate to take a much tougher oath of allegiance to past and future loyalty to the Union, stating that they had never given any voluntary help to the Confederacy. It also excluded all those involved in the Confederacy from any role in future government and demanded that the state constitution be changed to abolish slavery. Lincoln vetoed the bill, which led to a further deterioration in relations between Congress and the president.
Lincoln's Veto and Congressional Conflict
Lincoln's veto of the Wade-Davis Bill marked a critical moment in the power struggle between the President and Congress. The Radical Republicans' demand for 50% support (versus Lincoln's 10%) and harsher loyalty oaths represented fundamentally different visions of how to reunite the nation. This conflict foreshadowed the battles that would continue under Johnson.
The Thirteenth Amendment
Lincoln introduced the Thirteenth Amendment in November 1864. It was approved by Congress in January of the following year. By the end of 1865 enough states had approved the Amendment for it to become law. This formally freed all slaves in the USA.
The Freedmen's Bureau
In March 1865, Lincoln and Congress introduced the Freedmen's Bureau, a US agency set up for just one year to help former slaves in a variety of ways. It provided advice on education and employment for former slaves and helped in establishing schools for African Americans.
The Freedmen's Bureau represented one of the first federal social welfare programs in American history. Though initially established for only one year, it played a crucial role in helping formerly enslaved people transition to freedom by providing education, employment assistance, and other essential services.
Lincoln's position in 1865
By 1865, Lincoln's position on Reconstruction was still not entirely clear. He does not appear to have wished to punish the South and seemed to be moving towards accepting that African Americans should have equality before the law and even giving some the vote. On 14 April, Lincoln was assassinated by the actor John Wilkes Booth, who wanted to strike a blow for the Southern cause.
Reconstruction under Johnson (1865-68)
Andrew Johnson's background and character
Andrew Johnson (1808-75) was born in extreme poverty in North Carolina. Throughout his political career, Johnson stressed his working-class origins and claimed an affinity with ordinary Americans. He moved to Tennessee in 1826, was elected Governor of Tennessee in 1853, and became a Senator in 1857, remaining loyal to the Union on the outbreak of the Civil War. In 1862 he was appointed military governor of Tennessee. In 1864 he was nominated as Lincoln's vice-president, and in 1865 he became president following Lincoln's assassination. He faced and survived an impeachment trial in 1868 and died in 1875.
Historiographical debate on Johnson
Vice-president Andrew Johnson now became president and was keen to push ahead with Reconstruction. Johnson has generally been given a poor assessment by historians who criticise him for sharing the racial views of most white Southerners and appearing to be unconcerned about the plight of ex-slaves. However, some recent biographers have been more sympathetic, suggesting that Johnson introduced the right Reconstruction policies but lacked the ability to carry them out.
Changing Historical Perspectives on Johnson
Historical interpretations of Johnson have evolved over time. Traditional historians condemned Johnson for his racial views and opposition to civil rights for African Americans. More recent scholarship, while still critical, has attempted to understand Johnson within the context of his time and suggested that his failure may have been more about political skill than policy vision.
Johnson's aims and policies
Johnson wanted to restore the Southern states as quickly as possible, realising that Congress was due to reconvene in December 1865 and he would soon face strong opposition from Radical Republicans. He favoured leniency and had no wish to promote the position of ex-slaves. He accepted the Wade-Davis Bill for the oath of loyalty, but agreed that when each former Confederate state held a convention to revise its own constitution, those attending the convention would be elected by the 1860 white electorate.
The Black Codes (1865-66)
The new state legislatures in the South passed a series of laws known as the Black Codes. These included:
- African Americans deemed to be unemployed could be forced into working for white employers.
- The children of African Americans could be forced into working on plantations as apprentices.
- African Americans could be prevented from receiving an education.
These laws severely restricted the freedoms of former slaves and kept them in a subordinate position in Southern society.
The Black Codes: Slavery by Another Name
The Black Codes were a deliberate attempt to recreate the conditions of slavery under a different legal framework. By allowing forced labour, restricting education, and limiting economic opportunities, Southern states sought to maintain white supremacy and control over African American labour. These codes proved to many Northerners that the South had not truly accepted the outcome of the Civil War and prompted calls for more radical federal intervention.
Opposition to Johnson
By the time Congress met in December 1865, many Congressmen, including moderate Republicans, had serious doubts about Johnson's leniency towards the South. This was partly due to developments in the South, particularly the Black Codes.
The Civil Rights Bill, 1866
Instead of working with the moderate Republicans, Johnson sided with the Democrats. When Congress passed a bill strengthening the powers of the Freedmen's Bureau, Johnson vetoed the bill because he knew it would anger the South and make Reconstruction more difficult. Moderate Republicans now joined forces with radicals to introduce a Civil Rights Bill which gave minimum rights to blacks. Johnson vetoed the bill. However, for the first time in history, Congress overturned the presidential veto, which required a two-thirds majority in both Houses, and ensured the passage of the 1866 Civil Rights Bill.
Johnson's veto of the Civil Rights Bill proved to be a major political miscalculation. By alienating moderate Republicans who might have supported him, Johnson pushed them into an alliance with the Radical Republicans. The successful override of his veto marked a historic shift in power from the executive to the legislative branch.
The Fourteenth Amendment
To ensure that the Civil Rights Bill could not be changed in the future, Congress introduced the Fourteenth Amendment which stated that people who were born in the USA or who were naturalised were US citizens, and all citizens were guaranteed equality before the law. It also gave the federal authorities the right to intervene if states contravened its rules.
The Amendment was rejected by all the ex-Confederate states except Tennessee and failed to get the approval of 75 per cent of the states necessary for it to become law.
Radical Reconstruction
In order to ensure the passage of the Amendment, Congress put real pressure on the South with a series of plans known as 'Radical Reconstruction'. These included:
The Military Reconstruction Bill, 1867: This imposed military rule on the South with the exception of Tennessee. The ten remaining states were grouped into five military districts, each placed under a federal commander. To get back in the Union, Southern states had to elect national conventions which would accept black suffrage and accept the Fourteenth Amendment.
The Command of the Army Act: This reduced Johnson's military powers.
The Tenure of Office Act: This prevented Johnson from removing a host of office-holders. This was designed to protect the Secretary of State, Edwin M. Stanton, who was a fierce critic of Johnson and a staunch Radical Republican. As long as he remained in office, he would comply with congressional Reconstruction policies.
Congressional Power Reaches Its Peak
The Radical Reconstruction acts represented the high point of congressional power over the presidency. By imposing military rule, restricting the president's military authority, and preventing him from removing cabinet officers, Congress effectively stripped Johnson of much of his executive power. This was an unprecedented assertion of legislative supremacy.
Johnson impeached
Johnson, however, ignored the Tenure of Office Act and dismissed Stanton. The Republicans now decided to impeach Johnson, with the impeachment proceedings taking place in the Senate in 1868. Impeachment is a formal process in which an official is accused of unlawful activity.
Congress issued eleven articles of impeachment against Johnson which included the removal of Johnson and replacing him with Thomas without the permission of the Senate, as well as making three speeches with intent to show disrespect for Congress among the citizens of the United States. After a two-month trial, 35 Senators voted against Johnson and 19 for him. This was one short of the two-thirds majority needed to impeach him. He remained president, but both his credibility and effectiveness were destroyed.
Johnson's impeachment trial was one of the most dramatic political events in American history. The fact that he survived removal by a single vote shows how deeply divided the nation remained. Seven Republican Senators voted to acquit Johnson, putting principle above party politics and preventing what they viewed as an unconstitutional power grab by Congress.
The presidency of Grant
Ulysses S. Grant's background
Hiram Ulysses Grant (1822-85) was born in 1822 in Point Pleasant, Ohio. A year after his birth, his family moved to Georgetown, Ohio. His father arranged for him to enter the United States Military Academy at West Point in 1839. Ulysses Grant was stuck with the name Ulysses S. Grant due to a mistake on his application form to West Point. The middle initial 'S' doesn't stand for anything and he wanted to be rejected by the school, so he changed his name on the spot.
He graduated from West Point in 1843 and ten years later was promoted to captain of a battalion and transferred to Fort Humboldt on the Northern California coast. In 1854, Grant resigned from the Army amid allegations of heavy drinking and warnings of disciplinary action.
With the outbreak of the Civil War, he rejoined the army in 1861 and was promoted to major-general. Grant took control of Kentucky and most of Tennessee, and led Union forces to victory in the Battle of Shiloh, earning a reputation as an aggressive commander.
After the Civil War, between 1865 and 1868, Grant was Commanding General under President Johnson and led the US Army's supervision of Reconstruction in the former Confederate states. Grant was elected President in 1868 and served two terms. He died after battling throat cancer in 1885.
Grant's election, 1868
In 1868, the Republicans chose General Ulysses S. Grant as presidential candidate. His Democrat opponent was Horatio Seymour, who was opposed to Reconstruction and equality for African Americans. Grant won 52 per cent of the popular vote, partly as a result of Southern African American support.
Reconstruction under Grant
Grant was in favour of the harsh treatment of the South in the Reconstruction process. New state governments had been established in the South which was now under military rule, although there were never more than 20,000 troops in the whole of the South. These new governments were often corrupt and inefficient. The majority of new officials were Northerners who were nicknamed 'carpetbaggers' after the type of suitcase they carried, and they were helped by a few renegade Southern whites who were called 'scalawags', with the term derived from a nickname for low quality farm animals. These were Southern whites who formed a Republican coalition with black freedmen and Northern newcomers to take control of their state and local governments. Real power lay with the carpetbaggers supported by the US army. Most Southern whites detested the Republican newcomers who, they believed, were determined to destroy the Southern way of life.
The Reality Behind the Labels
The terms "carpetbaggers" and "scalawags" were derogatory labels created by Southern Democrats to discredit Republicans. While some Northern newcomers were indeed corrupt, many were teachers, ministers, and reformers genuinely committed to rebuilding the South and establishing civil rights for African Americans. Similarly, Southern white Republicans were often principled Unionists, not traitors to their region.
The Fifteenth Amendment
In 1869, the Fifteenth Amendment was introduced which stated that 'The right to vote should not be denied on account of race, colour or previous condition of servitude'. This Amendment ensured that citizens of any colour or race could vote, wherever they lived.
Scandals during Grant's presidency
In 1872, Grant easily defeated Horace Greeley in a second presidential election, winning over 55 per cent of the popular vote. Unfortunately, both of Grant's terms in office were dominated by a number of serious political scandals which involved some of his close associates.
Black Friday (24 September 1869): During his first term, a group of speculators (risk-taking investors with expertise in the market(s) in which they are trading) attempted to influence the government and manipulate the gold market. The failed plot resulted in a financial panic on 24 September 1869, known as Black Friday. Even though Grant was not directly involved in the scheme, his reputation suffered because he had become personally associated with two of the speculators, James Fisk and Jay Gould, prior to the scandal.
The Whiskey Ring scandal (1875): This involved a network of distillers, distributors and public officials who conspired to defraud the federal government of millions in liquor tax revenue. Grant's private secretary, Orville Babcock, was indicted in the scandal but, with the help of the President, was later acquitted.
Grant's Reputation and the Corruption Problem
While Grant himself was not personally corrupt, his presidency was plagued by scandals involving close associates. Grant's major flaw was his loyalty to friends and his poor judgment of character. The corruption during his administration was part of a broader problem in American politics during the Gilded Age, not unique to Grant or the South, but it undermined support for Reconstruction policies.
The end of Reconstruction, 1876-77
The presidential election of 1876 and subsequent compromise of 1877 is often regarded as the end of the period of Reconstruction. In 1876, the Republican candidate was Rutherford Hayes, while the Democrats chose Samuel Tilden. Tilden won the popular vote by 4,284,020 to 4,036,572 to Hayes. However, Hayes won the electoral college vote by 184 to 165. The voting returns for Oregon, South Carolina, Louisiana and Florida were contested and these four states had 20 electoral college votes. If these went to Hayes, he would have won the election.
This resulted in a long, complex and controversial process to try to resolve the problem with a special commission, set up to allocate the electoral college votes from the disputed states, allocating these to Hayes.
This ended the crisis. It was a secret deal between the largely Northern-based Republicans and the emerging Democratic Party of the South. The Democrats would accept Hayes as president. He, in return, agreed to withdraw all troops from the South and the departure of the 'carpetbaggers'. Hayes did withdraw troops from the South and this brought an end to Republican attempts to modernise the politics, government and racial attitudes of the South.
The Compromise of 1877: A Turning Point
The Compromise of 1877 marked the formal end of Reconstruction and represented a political bargain that sacrificed African American rights for partisan advantage. In exchange for the presidency, Republicans abandoned their commitment to protecting civil rights in the South. This withdrawal of federal troops allowed white Southern Democrats to regain control and gradually strip away the rights that African Americans had gained during Reconstruction.
Interpretations of Reconstruction
Political effects
There has been much debate about the effects of Reconstruction, with some historians very critical of its achievements and effects.
In many respects, the North was not harsh on the South during Reconstruction. Only one man was executed and there was no major confiscation of property. For decades the Democratic Party, which ensured white supremacy, controlled the South. Carpetbagger influence has been exaggerated. In no state did Northerners constitute even two per cent of the population and they were not trying to economically exploit the South. Some were corrupt and accepted bribes but this was commonplace throughout the USA, not just the South, especially from the railroad companies. Moreover, in many Southern states Radical Reconstruction was over before it began. Tennessee was under Radical Reconstruction for a shorter period than other states, and several states were readmitted to the Union relatively quickly (see dates on map).
Historical assessments of Reconstruction have shifted dramatically over time. Early 20th-century historians often portrayed it as a vindictive northern assault on the South. More recent scholarship has emphasized the genuine attempts to establish civil rights and the severe limitations placed on these efforts by white Southern resistance and eventual Northern abandonment of Reconstruction goals.
The map of Southern state readmission shows that Virginia was readmitted in 1870/1869, Tennessee in 1866/1869, North Carolina in 1868/1870, South Carolina in 1868/1876, Georgia in 1870/1871, Florida in 1868/1877, Alabama in 1868/1874, Mississippi in 1870/1876, Louisiana in 1868/1877, Arkansas in 1868/1874, and Texas in 1869/1873. The dates indicate both readmission to the Union and re-establishment of Democrat government, showing that in many cases Democratic control was restored relatively quickly.
Key Points to Remember:
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Lincoln's approach to Reconstruction was lenient (Ten Percent Plan), but Radical Republicans in Congress pushed for harsher measures (Wade-Davis Bill). Lincoln's assassination in April 1865 prevented him from fully implementing his vision.
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Johnson's presidency saw growing conflict between the president and Congress. Johnson favoured quick restoration of Southern states with minimal protections for African Americans. His vetoes of the Civil Rights Bill and opposition to the Fourteenth Amendment led to his impeachment in 1868, though he survived by one vote.
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The three Reconstruction Amendments fundamentally changed the constitutional status of African Americans: the Thirteenth Amendment (1865) abolished slavery, the Fourteenth Amendment (1868) granted citizenship and equal protection under the law, and the Fifteenth Amendment (1869) protected voting rights regardless of race.
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Grant's presidency saw the peak of Radical Reconstruction but was marred by political scandals including Black Friday (1869) and the Whiskey Ring (1875). Corruption was widespread during this period, not just in the South but throughout the USA.
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The Compromise of 1877 effectively ended Reconstruction. Following the disputed presidential election of 1876, Hayes agreed to withdraw federal troops from the South in exchange for the presidency, allowing Southern Democrats to regain control and ending Republican efforts to transform the South.