Cold War Rivalries, 1955–63 (AQA A-Level History): Revision Notes
The Arms and Space Races
The extension of the arms race
Following Stalin's death in 1953, Soviet foreign policy pursued an inconsistent path. While officially advocating peaceful coexistence, the USSR simultaneously provided support to revolutionary movements worldwide. This contradiction stemmed partly from Mao Zedong's challenge to Nikita Khrushchev's claim to lead the communist world.
American policy also demonstrated internal contradictions. Although Dwight D. Eisenhower criticised the 'military industrial complex', his administration supported extensive weapons development. John F. Kennedy maintained many of these policies. Both superpowers only began reconsidering their nuclear strategies after the Cuban Missile Crisis exposed the dangers of their approach.
Nuclear weapons development
When the USSR successfully tested nuclear technology, a nuclear arms race commenced. In March 1954, the USA tested a lithium-based H-bomb with explosive power 1,500 times greater than the bomb dropped on Hiroshima in 1945. By September 1955, the USSR had developed comparable technology, testing an airborne H-bomb 100 times more powerful than their initial attempts.
Strategic Air Command (SAC) was an organisation established to serve as the USA's primary defence system. Created in 1948 and headed by General Curtis LeMay, SAC's role involved maintaining 24-hour readiness to respond to external nuclear threats. By 1957, SAC had evolved into an efficient all-out force focused on strategic bombers, also managing the deployment of the USA's expanding nuclear arsenal.
Missile delivery systems and the missile gap
From 1957, the USSR developed missile delivery systems for nuclear warheads. In November 1957, Eisenhower commissioned an investigation into US-Soviet nuclear capability, known as the Gaither Report. Popular opinion held that the Soviets were catching up with American technology. In the summer of 1959, they successfully tested their first Intercontinental Ballistic Missile (ICBM) - a nuclear warhead delivery system with a range exceeding 5,600 km, capable of delivering nuclear weapons at great speed, often within 30 minutes of launch. In October, they placed their first satellite into orbit.
Eisenhower commissioned the Gaither Report to calm public fears and reinforce American control of the nuclear arms race. However, the report first presented the concept of a missile gap - the difference between nuclear delivery system numbers possessed by each superpower. The Gaither Report revealed gaps between Soviet and American technology, predicting a 100 to 30 lead in ICBMs favouring the USSR. The Washington Post reported that America risked becoming a second-class power.
Rather than accepting the Gaither Report's conclusions, Eisenhower placed his trust in data gathered from U-2 spy plane intelligence. These unauthorised reconnaissance flights had operated since 1950, using modified B-29 bombers. From July 1956, the Lockheed U-2, with a range of 2,600 miles and equipped with sophisticated cameras, radar and radio facilities, was deployed. It could fly at approximately 75,000 feet, placing it beyond the reach of radar and missile attacks (at least until 1961). This intelligence provided exceptionally accurate data regarding conditions on the ground.
The data gathered by U-2 flights suggested the USSR maintained a slower rate of nuclear warhead production than the Gaither Report claimed. The Gaither Report had based its conclusions on inadequate evidence regarding Soviet nuclear strength. This information enabled Eisenhower to recognise that Soviet ICBM deployment remained limited. By 1959, merely ten SS-6 ICBMs had been deployed.
Development of new missile systems
The USA developed a new range of ICBMs, including the Atlas and Titan models, adding them to their intermediate range ballistic missile (IRBM) systems. Eisenhower strengthened American nuclear strike capability when, in 1957, he negotiated an agreement with Britain at the Bermuda Conference enabling the USA to station IRBMs in Britain, operated by British personnel. A comparable agreement was reached with NATO in December 1957.
The year 1959 witnessed development of the next generation of nuclear missile systems, including the Submarine-Launched Ballistic Missile (SLBM) Polaris, the Thor, and the Minuteman (ICBM) systems. SLBMs were ballistic missiles that could be launched from submarines operating beneath the water's surface.
Meanwhile, the USSR developed its own revised systems. The Soviet SS-6 system was considered excessively large and lacked mobility in deployment. Khrushchev ordered its replacement with the more mobile SS-7.
Comparative arms statistics 1956-64
| Year | Strategic bombers (USA) | Strategic bombers (USSR) | SLBMs (USA) | SLBMs (USSR) | ICBMs (USA) | ICBMs (USSR) |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| 1956 | 560 | 60 | - | - | - | - |
| 1960 | 550 | 175 | 295 | 75 | - | - |
| 1962 | - | - | 145 | 45 | - | - |
| 1964 | - | - | 835 | 200 | - | - |
These figures demonstrate that whilst the USSR increased its strategic bomber numbers substantially between 1956 and 1960, the USA maintained numerical superiority throughout. By 1964, the USA possessed considerably more SLBMs than the USSR, though Soviet numbers had grown significantly.
The space race, Sputnik and space flight
The space race represented a continuation of nuclear proliferation. Theorists argued that the ability to construct a satellite would provide its developer with superiority in the arms race. On 4 October 1957, the Soviet Union claimed its first victory in the technological arms race by launching the first satellite to orbit the earth. Sputnik had been created. In November, a dog named Laika was launched into a ten-day orbit in Sputnik II.
These developments in Soviet technology alarmed American officials, as it appeared that Soviet space technology had surpassed their own. Sputnik demonstrated to the USA that the USSR possessed the technology to launch nuclear missiles against American territory, and that this possibility could rapidly become reality. The USA became convinced that this explained why the Sputnik programme had been developed. No known defence existed against what was perceived as the start of a new era of nuclear missile attacks from space.
American response and concerns
Eisenhower's Republican administration experienced increasing pressure from Democrats, who accused the administration of permitting the Soviet Union to gain the lead in space technology to reduce costs. Sputnik appeared to fundamentally undermine the effectiveness of the massive retaliation strategy that remained central to American Cold War nuclear defence planning.
Sputnik created a sense of urgency for the USA to develop its own space technology programme. In September 1958, the government authorised $1 billion for technological development in this field. The USA's initial response proved disastrous when, on 6 December 1957, the US Navy's Vanguard rocket crashed on take-off from Cape Canaveral. It was cynically referred to as 'Flopnik'.
Soviet space programme achievements
In contrast, the Soviet space programme, directed by Sergei P. Korolev, progressed from strength to strength. In October 1959, the first satellite to successfully orbit the moon was launched. On 12 April 1961, the first manned satellite to orbit the earth was launched. Yuri Gagarin (1934-68), the first Soviet cosmonaut, achieved hero status both domestically and internationally. Gagarin became the first human to enter outer space, travelling in a Vostok spacecraft. He represented a symbol of Soviet advances in space technology and later attended the Soviet Cosmonaut Training Centre in Moscow before his untimely death in an aircraft accident.
American catch-up
This Soviet lead was soon reversed as the USA rapidly caught up in the space race. By 1962, the USA had successfully launched 63 space missions compared to the USSR's 15 missions. From August 1960, the US Discoverer satellite programme provided long-range intelligence, gathering photographs from space, and had rendered the U-2 flights semi-obsolete. This enabled the USA to gain more coverage in one capsule than the combined four years of U-2 coverage.
A strong belief existed among American leaders that space control would lead to global control. In 1958, Eisenhower established the National Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA) to coordinate and advance American space exploration.
Key figure: General Curtis LeMay (1906-90)
General Curtis LeMay pursued an illustrious career and was directly involved in numerous high-profile American airforce actions, notably the Berlin Airlift. He earned the nickname 'Old Iron Pants'. Whilst commanding SAC from 1948 to 1957, he advocated the notion of a pre-emptive strike against the USSR and strongly emphasised the need for permanent readiness in the nuclear age.
Remember!
Key Points to Remember:
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The arms race accelerated after Stalin's death, with both superpowers developing increasingly powerful nuclear weapons including H-bombs and ICBMs.
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The Gaither Report (1957) suggested a missile gap favouring the USSR, but U-2 spy plane intelligence revealed Soviet ICBM deployment was limited to approximately ten SS-6 missiles by 1959.
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The Soviet Union achieved early space race victories with Sputnik (October 1957) and Yuri Gagarin's orbit (April 1961), alarming American officials who feared Soviet technological superiority.
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By 1962, the USA had successfully caught up in the space race, launching 63 missions compared to the USSR's 15, aided by the establishment of NASA in 1958.
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Both superpowers developed new missile systems including SLBMs, and the USA negotiated agreements with Britain and NATO to station IRBMs in Europe, strengthening Western nuclear strike capability.