The Greek Civil War, the Truman Doctrine and Cominform, 1947 (AQA A-Level History): Revision Notes
The Greek Civil War, the Truman Doctrine and Cominform, 1947
Context: deteriorating East-West relations by 1946
By September 1946, the onset of a Cold War appeared increasingly unavoidable. Relations between East and West had gained momentum characterised by mutual distrust and apprehension. While such tensions had existed in international relations before, they intensified notably after 1945.
The USA had emerged as the dominant global economy and now sought to employ this economic strength as an instrument of foreign policy—a new approach for the Americans. Meanwhile, the Soviet Union had succeeded in establishing the foundations of national security through a system of satellite states in Eastern Europe. Moscow recognised that maintaining its security required enhancing its control over pro-Soviet states, which implied extending pro-Moscow communist-led governments beyond Europe.
Both superpowers regarded each other not merely as threats to national security but as expansionist powers with global strategic ambitions. This mutual perception of threat became a defining characteristic of the emerging Cold War.
The Greek Civil War
The catalyst that prompted a fundamental reorientation of US foreign policy emerged in Europe. Stalin had agreed Greece should remain within the Western sphere of influence after the war. Following liberation from Nazi occupation, a civil war erupted between monarchists and Greek communists—communist forces fighting in Greece.
Britain had been supplying aid to the anti-communist forces in Greece. However, in February 1947, Britain announced this aid would no longer be available and appealed to the USA to assume the financial burden.
Stalin and the Greek communists
Stalin had not been providing aid to the Greek communists, and no indication existed that he would begin to do so when British assistance to anti-communists ceased. Stalin demonstrated little sympathy towards communist revolutions in independent states because he could not ensure Moscow's control over such movements. These realities had minimal impact on Truman's decision-making.
The Truman Doctrine, 12 March 1947
Announcement and content
The USA, as the dominant global economy, intended to utilise this power as an integral component of its foreign policy—a novel approach for the Americans.
On 12 March 1947, Truman delivered a speech to a joint session of the US Congress, which was also broadcast to a national radio audience. In this address, Truman outlined what would become known as the Truman Doctrine.
Two contrasting ways of life
Truman presented two opposing visions to justify US intervention:
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The first way based upon the will of the majority, distinguished by free institutions, representative government, free elections, guarantees of individual liberty, freedom of speech and religion, and freedom from political oppression
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The second way based upon the will of the minority forcibly imposed on the majority, relying upon terror and oppression, a controlled press and radio, fixed elections, and the suppression of personal freedoms
Truman stated: "I believe that it must be the policy of the United States to support free peoples who are resisting attempted subjugation by armed minorities or by outside pressures... I believe that our help should be primarily through economic and financial aid which is essential to economic stability and orderly political processes."
Containment strategy
Containment refers to a strategy announced by Truman aimed at preventing the spread of communism by providing aid to those states that might be exposed to it. The USA presented this assistance as a necessary defence of freedom, and it was made available to any state that requested US support.
Motives behind the Truman Doctrine
Multiple motives can be attributed to Truman's decision to introduce this doctrine. Historians have identified several possible explanations, each offering different perspectives on US intentions:
A diplomatic move: The doctrine may have been a rather blunt instrument of diplomacy designed to discourage the Soviet Union from supporting the Greek communist movement. It held no relevance to US policy beyond the Greek Civil War.
Protecting democracy and freedom: The doctrine was designed primarily to protect democracy and freedom, with no aggressive intent towards any other state. It represented a response to Soviet aggressive political, strategic and ideological expansionism in Eastern Europe.
Demonising communism: Truman needed to demonise the Soviet Union and communism in the minds of the American public. He required Americans to perceive communism and the Soviet Union as an enemy of the USA to justify protecting American national interests and transforming the USA into a global power.
Provoking the Soviet Union: Truman aimed to provoke the Soviet Union. His doctrine was designed to make the USSR feel threatened by the West's technological power. Truman desired a Cold War to commence because this would justify the USA's role as a defender of freedom, but more importantly it would enable the USA to function as a world power.
Developing global economic power: The doctrine formed an important element of the USA's aim of developing its global economic power. By creating an enemy and presenting itself as the protector against that enemy, the USA would render other states not only militarily dependent on America but also economically dependent. These states would inevitably establish close trade relations with the USA because they were close political allies.
Significance and the United Nations
The Truman Doctrine proved fundamentally important regarding the dynamics of international relations from 1947 onwards. International relations would now be founded upon division, with each side suspicious of the other. The Truman Doctrine institutionalised this division as the working basis of East-West relations for at least the next 25 years.
Notably, Truman had not approached the newly created United Nations as the arbiter of the dispute in Greece, although this might well have been appropriate given the UN was established precisely for such purposes. The explanation lies in the Soviet Union's ability to employ its veto power—the right to vote against something, with that single vote being sufficient to halt the entire plan—to prevent any UN peacekeeping intervention in the Greek Civil War.
The doctrine represented the first step in establishing containment as the foundation of US post-war foreign policy. The next step arrived through the Marshall Plan, drawn up by George Marshall and introduced in June 1947, which was designed to reinforce the doctrine.
Cominform, September 1947
Stalin's response to US policy
Stalin was determined to respond to US economic imperialism and the reconstruction of Germany through the Marshall Plan. By late 1947, he had become convinced that the USA held no genuine interest in any model of international relations based on multiple spheres of influence that could coexist peacefully.
Stalin's changed worldview
Previously, Stalin had believed that capitalist states would ultimately collapse due to the economic rivalry that would develop among them. This view was now replaced by a conviction that the USA was engineering an anti-Soviet, US-led global alliance.
Formation and purpose
In response to this analysis, and to undermine US strategy, communist representatives from across Europe were summoned to a meeting in Poland in preparation for creating the Communist Information Bureau (Cominform). In Stalin's view, two camps had clearly emerged; therefore Soviet influence in Eastern Europe had to be consolidated.
The purpose of Cominform was to unite and coordinate the role and actions of communist groups throughout Europe so that the Communist Party functioned as a united whole under the direction of Moscow.
Andrei Zhdanov and the Zhdanov Doctrine
Andrei Zhdanov, a Soviet leader, was a key speaker at this meeting and the author of the Zhdanov Doctrine. Zhdanov (1896–1948) was a hard-line Stalinist who brought his extremism into his responsibility for Soviet culture. He was responsible for developing Cominform. His restraint in bringing Yugoslavia into line led to his disgrace and dismissal from office in 1948.
Zhdanov was committed to the view that the USA wanted to establish an anti-Soviet empire based on economic dependency upon the USA for those states who entered this sphere of US influence.
The two camps theory
Zhdanov viewed the world as being divided into two camps: the imperialists led by the USA and the democrats led by the USSR. This thinking was transferred to Soviet cultural policy, forcing artists, writers and intellectuals to reflect this worldview through their work.
Cominform can be regarded as a direct response to the USA's introduction of the Marshall Plan in June 1947. The USSR felt there was a need to consolidate communist states to counter what it perceived as the rise of US imperialism through the Marshall Plan.
Remember!
Key Points to Remember:
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The Greek Civil War became the catalyst for a fundamental reorientation of US foreign policy when Britain withdrew aid to anti-communist forces in February 1947.
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The Truman Doctrine, announced 12 March 1947, committed the USA to supporting free peoples resisting subjugation through economic and financial aid, establishing containment as the basis of US foreign policy.
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Multiple motives drove the Truman Doctrine: diplomatic pressure on the USSR, protecting democracy, demonising communism to the American public, developing US global economic power, and potentially provoking the Soviet Union.
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Cominform was established in September 1947 as Stalin's response to perceived US economic imperialism, uniting communist parties across Europe under Moscow's direction based on Zhdanov's two camps theory.
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Together, the Truman Doctrine and Cominform institutionalised the division between East and West as the working basis of international relations for the next 25 years.