Key Terms (AQA A-Level History): Revision Notes
Key Terms
A
ABMs (Anti-Ballistic Missiles) refers to missile defence systems created to intercept and destroy incoming ballistic missiles before they could strike their intended targets. These weapons became central to Cold War strategic calculations about nuclear deterrence.
ABMs represented a defensive rather than offensive nuclear capability, creating new strategic considerations about whether effective missile defence could destabilise the doctrine of mutually assured destruction (MAD).
African National Congress (ANC) became the governing party in South Africa following the end of apartheid. During the Cold War period, the ANC served as the organisational base for resistance to white minority rule, conducting both armed struggle and peaceful opposition activities.
Agent Orange was a herbicide chemical containing dioxin that the United States deployed in Vietnam to destroy forest cover and crops. The chemical caused severe health consequences, destroying vegetation and causing birth defects in exposed populations.
The long-term environmental and health impacts of Agent Orange continue to affect Vietnamese populations decades after the war ended, representing one of the most controversial aspects of American military strategy in Vietnam.
Americanised describes the situation where the United States assumed direct command and operational control of the Vietnam War. Under this arrangement, the South Vietnamese government and military functioned primarily to support American strategy rather than leading their own war effort.
Apartheid was the legal system of racial segregation that governed South Africa from 1948 until 1994 under Boer Nationalist Party rule. This policy created separate development for different racial groups and denied political rights to the non-white majority.
Apparatchiks were officials within Communist Party structures and government bureaucracies who maintained established policies and resisted changes to existing systems. These individuals held positions of administrative power and worked to preserve the status quo.
Atomic bomb represented the first successful weaponisation of nuclear technology. The United States dropped two atomic bombs on Japan in August 1945, demonstrating that nuclear weapons could be effectively deployed in warfare.
The atomic bombs dropped on Hiroshima and Nagasaki marked both the end of the Second World War and the beginning of the nuclear age, fundamentally transforming international relations and military strategy for the Cold War period.
B
Bilateral refers to agreements or actions involving exactly two states operating independently of other nations. These arrangements allowed countries to pursue their own interests without requiring multilateral consultation or approval.
Bloc describes groupings of states sharing common interests, whether military, economic, or political. During the Cold War, the term frequently referenced the division between Western and Eastern blocs.
Bourgeoisie was the Marxist term for the class that controlled the means of production, distribution, and economic activity. Communist ideology positioned this class as exploiters of the working masses.
Brinkmanship was a diplomatic and military strategy involving deliberate escalation of tensions to convince opponents that armed conflict was imminent. One side would demonstrate unwillingness to back down, forcing the other to retreat or face actual war.
Historical Example: The Cuban Missile Crisis
The 1962 Cuban Missile Crisis represents the most famous instance of brinkmanship during the Cold War. Both the United States and Soviet Union escalated tensions to the brink of nuclear war before Soviet Premier Khrushchev agreed to remove missiles from Cuba in exchange for American concessions.
C
Capitalism is an economic system organised around private property ownership, where market forces of supply and demand determine prices and economic activity rather than state planning.
Ceasefire represents a temporary halt to military operations, implemented to create space for resolving underlying disputes. Ceasefires addressed immediate fighting without necessarily settling the broader conflict.
Collective security operated on the principle that states would cooperate in mutual defence arrangements, thereby reducing the need for individual defensive alliances and creating shared responsibility for maintaining peace.
The United Nations was designed around collective security principles, with member states theoretically committed to defending any member subjected to aggression.
Collectivisation involved consolidating individual farms into large state-controlled agricultural units. Under this system, the state set production targets and exercised direct control over farming operations.
Comecon (Council for Economic Cooperation) was established in 1949 as the communist bloc's economic coordination body. It facilitated trade and cooperation among Eastern European communist states and later expanded to include Mongolia, Cuba, and Vietnam.
Constitution defines the fundamental rules governing a state, including citizens' rights, governmental structure, legislative processes, and judicial roles. Constitutions establish the legal framework within which political systems operate.
Conventional forces encompassed military resources excluding nuclear weapons—ground troops, air forces, and naval vessels operating with traditional armaments.
Counterinsurgency tactics focused on defeating guerrilla warfare and unconventional military operations. These methods emphasised intelligence gathering, targeting individual leaders, and psychological operations rather than conventional battlefield confrontations.
Coup occurs when a ruling government is forcibly removed from power. Coups are typically executed by military forces rather than civilian opposition movements.
Covert operations involved secret intelligence gathering, formation of underground resistance networks, economic sabotage, and psychological warfare through propaganda. These activities were conducted clandestinely and designed to avoid detection by target states.
The Central Intelligence Agency (CIA) and Soviet KGB conducted extensive covert operations throughout the Cold War, including orchestrating coups, supporting resistance movements, and gathering intelligence on opposing powers.
Cruise missile describes any guided missile—whether air, land, or sea-launched—capable of striking land-based targets with precision guidance systems.
D
Détente represented a period of reduced hostility and improved relations between states, particularly between Cold War adversaries. The policy involved easing tensions through diplomatic engagement and negotiation.
Détente reached its peak during the 1970s, producing significant arms control agreements like SALT I and improved trade relations, though it ultimately declined following the Soviet invasion of Afghanistan in 1979.
Draft dodgers were individuals who attempted to evade compulsory military service in the United States. During the Vietnam War, the American government implemented a draft system using random selection; those who refused or avoided service were termed draft dodgers.
E
Economic imperialism described how economically powerful states could leverage their economic strength to ensure that weaker states became dependent on them. This dependency relationship allowed stronger nations to exert influence over weaker ones.
Encyclical refers to formal letters issued by the Pope to all Roman Catholic churches worldwide, defining Church positions on matters of doctrine and practice relevant to Catholic teaching.
F
Federalism is a governmental system combining central authority with regional autonomy. The central government creates nationwide laws whilst individual state governments make laws specific to their territories.
Free market economy operates through supply and demand forces determining prices, with minimal state intervention in economic decision-making and competition.
G
Geostrategic relates to geographic areas possessing strategic importance for states. The term considers how specific locations impact military power and state interests within particular regions.
Glasnost was the Soviet policy meaning 'openness', allowing Soviet citizens greater freedom to discuss political problems and voice criticism of governmental policies.
Introduced by Mikhail Gorbachev in the mid-1980s, glasnost represented a fundamental shift in Soviet governance, allowing unprecedented public discussion of political issues and ultimately contributing to the USSR's dissolution.
Globalism represents the opposite approach to isolationism in foreign policy. It involves using national power to influence events on a global scale, enabling states to function as world powers rather than focusing narrowly on immediate regional interests.
GOSPLAN served as the Soviet central economic planning agency, responsible for coordinating economic activity across the USSR.
Guerrilla action involves 'undercover' fighting methods against stronger conventional military forces. Guerrilla fighters typically use ambush tactics and set traps rather than engaging in traditional battlefield confrontations, thereby increasing their chances of success against superior forces.
Guerrilla describes a member of a small independent fighting group participating in irregular combat, often using unplanned and unconventional methods.
I
Ideology encompasses collections of ideas about how society, economics, and politics should be organised. Ideologies typically include long-term objectives and drive foreign policy decisions, maintaining fixed positions that resist compromise with alternative viewpoints.
The ideological divide between capitalism and communism formed the fundamental basis of Cold War conflict, shaping military alliances, economic systems, and political structures across the globe.
Imperialism refers to policies extending a country's power and influence through colonisation, military force, or other means of domination over other territories and peoples.
Indochina was the geographical term used collectively for Cambodia, Laos, North Vietnam, and South Vietnam. These territories had been French colonies before the 1954 Geneva Agreement.
Intercontinental Ballistic Missile (ICBM) represented nuclear warhead delivery systems with ranges exceeding 5,600 kilometres. These weapons could deliver nuclear strikes with great speed, often reaching targets within 30 minutes of launch.
ICBMs became the primary nuclear delivery system during the Cold War due to their speed, range, and difficulty to intercept, making them central to the concept of mutually assured destruction.
Isolationism was the foreign policy approach favoured by the United States before its Second World War intervention. This policy emphasised minimal involvement in external affairs beyond those directly relating to American interests in geographically proximate areas.
L
Linkage in diplomatic terminology means connecting concessions on one issue with concessions on a different issue. This approach transformed diplomacy into a package of interconnected issues rather than addressing matters in isolation.
Diplomatic Example: Nixon's China Policy
President Nixon employed linkage strategy when opening relations with China, connecting improved Sino-American relations with potential Soviet cooperation on arms control and Vietnam peace negotiations.
M
MIRVs (Multiple Independently Targetable Re-entry Vehicles) were ballistic missiles equipped with several warheads, each capable of being directed at different targets, thereby multiplying a single missile's destructive capacity.
Missile gap referred to disparities between states' nuclear delivery system capabilities. The state possessing more nuclear missiles held a comparative advantage, creating a strategic imbalance.
The "missile gap" debate dominated American politics in the late 1950s and early 1960s, with politicians claiming the Soviet Union had achieved nuclear superiority. Later intelligence revealed this gap was largely exaggerated.
Montagnards were the hill-dwelling indigenous populations inhabiting Vietnam's central plains. They practised subsistence farming, growing sufficient food to feed themselves and their families.
Mujaheddin literally translates to those engaged in jihad. During the Cold War, this term specifically identified the loose alliance of guerrilla fighters opposing the Soviets and the Democratic Republic of Afghanistan, as described by English-language media.
N
National security policy defines the actions a state considers necessary to protect itself from external threats. These policies typically have medium or long-term timeframes and connect closely with military and diplomatic objectives, often based on threat assessments.
Nepotism involves appointing relatives to positions of responsibility and authority. This practice generally represents a corrupt process based on family connections rather than individual merit or capability.
Neutralism was a proposal by France calling for a negotiated settlement to end South Vietnam's military connections with external states, thereby leaving it exposed to North Vietnamese pressure.
Nuclear umbrella defined a nuclear capacity sufficiently extensive to protect multiple allies. The capability would be broad enough to ensure no ally faced danger, thereby functioning as a form of collective deterrence against potential aggression.
The American nuclear umbrella extended over NATO allies and Asian partners like Japan and South Korea, fundamentally shaping these countries' defence policies and alliance commitments during the Cold War.
O
OPEC (Organisation of Petroleum Exporting Countries) was established in 1960 by Iran, Iraq, Kuwait, Saudi Arabia, and Venezuela. This organisation enabled oil-producing countries to coordinate policies regarding oil production and pricing. Whilst not including all oil-producing nations, OPEC controlled at least two-thirds of known global oil reserves.
Organisation of American States was created in Bogotá, Colombia, in 1948 to promote interregional solidarity. The organisation achieved greatest success in advancing social and economic cooperation among member states.
P
Perestroika means 'restructuring' and referred to major social, political, and economic reforms implemented in the Soviet Union during the late Cold War period.
Together with glasnost, perestroika represented Gorbachev's attempt to revitalise the Soviet system. However, these reforms ultimately accelerated the USSR's collapse by exposing deep systemic problems and unleashing forces beyond the government's control.
Politburo was the highest policy-making authority under communist rule, serving as the central policy-making and governing body of the Communist Party.
Pro-agrarian parties existed in many Eastern European states and focused on representing farming community interests. Land redistribution was a political priority for these parties.
Proletarian in Marxist terminology described the working class who owned very little and were exploited by the majority bourgeoisie. According to communist ideology, this class would rise against their oppressors.
Protectorate describes a region or state falling under another state's influence, where the dominant state aims to ensure the subordinate state's safety.
Proxy war involves a major power instigating conflict without direct involvement, supporting one side whilst avoiding becoming directly engaged in the fighting.
Historical Example: The Korean War
The Korean War (1950-1953) exemplified a proxy war, with the United States supporting South Korea and the Soviet Union and China backing North Korea. The superpowers provided weapons, training, and support without directly confronting each other militarily.
R
Reparations generally means making amends for wrongs committed against another party. In international relations, reparations typically take the form of financial payments or other assistance to wronged countries.
Revanchism derives from the French term for 'revenge'. It describes situations where peoples, such as West Germans in 1956, wished to restore lost territories, thereby threatening neighbouring Poland's security.
Revisionism in the communist context was a disparaging term applied to governments or individuals perceived as deviating from the revolutionary path of socialism, typically by adapting capitalist policies rather than maintaining strict communist orthodoxy.
Communist leaders frequently accused each other of revisionism during ideological disputes. The Sino-Soviet split partly centred on mutual accusations of betraying true communist principles.
S
Security Council serves as the decision-making executive element of the United Nations Organisation. A small number of member states hold responsibility for making decisions concerning UN intervention in international disputes.
Sino is a term derived from Latin used to refer to China. Therefore, Sino-Soviet describes the relationship between China and the USSR.
SLBMs (Submarine-Launched Ballistic Missiles) were ballistic missiles launched from submarines whilst underwater, providing a mobile and concealed nuclear strike capability.
SLBMs represented the most survivable component of nuclear forces because submarines could remain hidden, ensuring a second-strike capability even if land-based missiles were destroyed in a first strike.
Sovereignty represents international community recognition of a state's independence and its right to govern itself without external interference.
Sphere of influence describes an area or region where one power, or group of powers, exercises substantial control over apparently independent states.
Strategic planning involves planning designed to establish military, political, or economic control through pursuing actions and policies producing one or more desired outcomes.
Strategic reserves are military forces, both conventional and nuclear, not immediately deployed but held back in order to be deployed where the greatest need is deemed to exist at any point in a conflict.
Summit refers to high-level international meetings bringing together leaders capable of collectively negotiating implementable outcomes. Summit meetings provided opportunities for states to work together creating solutions rather than smaller alliance groups competing against each other.
U
Unilateral describes actions performed by one person or country in a situation without the agreement of others involved.
Unilateralism is a policy adopted by individual states based on relying on the state's own resources and acting as an individual state rather than through alliances with other states.
United Nations is an international organisation established in 1945 with the primary aim of preserving world peace through collective cooperation amongst its members.
V
Veto represents the right to vote against something, where that single vote is sufficient to stop the entire plan from proceeding.
The five permanent members of the UN Security Council (United States, Soviet Union/Russia, United Kingdom, France, and China) each possess veto power, enabling any one of them to block Security Council resolutions.
Vietcong was the name President Diem used to describe National Liberation Front members. The term suggested they were communists, implying they were Vietnamese communists.
W
War of attrition describes a military strategy where at least one side attempts to wear down the opponent's resolve through battles where the objective extends beyond simply winning to depleting the enemy's resources and inflicting maximum damage.
Western zones referred to the areas of occupied Germany administered by Britain, the United States, and France following Germany's division into four zones after the Second World War. The three Western-controlled zones were collectively termed the Western zones.
Key Points to Remember:
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Many Cold War terms relate to nuclear weapons technology and delivery systems (ABMs, ICBMs, MIRVs, SLBMs), reflecting the central role of nuclear deterrence in the period.
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Ideological terminology (capitalism, communism, bourgeoisie, proletarian) was essential to understanding the fundamental divide between the superpowers.
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Strategic concepts (brinkmanship, sphere of influence, collective security, détente) shaped how states interacted during the Cold War.
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Understanding the difference between conventional and unconventional warfare (counterinsurgency, guerrilla action) is essential for analysing Cold War conflicts like Vietnam.
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International organisations (United Nations, OPEC, Comecon, Organisation of American States) played important roles in Cold War diplomacy and economic relations.